Behaviour signals the internal states that relate to an individual’s welfare and its development is influenced by the early social environment that an animal experiences. Husbandry practices can alter this early social environment, for example different rearing conditions (e.g. foster rearing by a surrogate parent of another species). Widespread implementation of altered rearing can lack empirical support and non-parent-reared animals may experience poorer welfare resulting from maternal deprivation. An opportunity presented itself to measure the effect of foster-rearing on Chilean flamingo behaviour and social preferences at WWT Slimbridge Wetland Centre and compare findings to parent-reared conspecifics in the same time period. Data were collected from April to July 2019 at three timepoints during each observation day. Binomial generalized linear mixed models were used to assess the relationship between focal chicks’ rearing background with behaviour, zone usage, and flock position whilst accounting for climatic factors and visitor numbers. The development of social preferences was assessed using social network analysis. Our results showed limited impacts on flamingo behavioural development due to foster rearing. Foster-reared chicks spent less time feeding, were more likely to occupy the nesting area of the enclosure, and had fewer significant preferred associations than parent-reared chicks, but preferred social bonds were as equally strong and durable for both foster-reared and parent-reared chicks. Our results have important welfare implications for the use of foster-rearing in captive environments; altered early social rearing environments through cross-fostering in Chilean flamingos is associated with limited differences in behavioural and social development.

Flamingos are well known for their gregarious habits and aggregations in large flocks, but evaluation of the mechanisms behind social grouping remain poorly understood. Captive birds provide a useful model for investigating aspects of social choice in highly gregarious, long-lived species. Animals invest in social relationships that convey fitness benefits and bonds can be long-lasting. For some species, field-based measurement of social networks can be difficult. Captive populations therefore provide a useful alternative for measuring social choices. Data were collected on flamingos at WWT Slimbridge Wetland Centre from 2013 to 2016 and compared to data from 2012. For three flocks, associations were analysed along with individual foot health scores to identify any relationship between health and social behaviour. Long-term partnerships were present in all flocks; preferred associates noted in 2012 were present in 2016. Matrix correlations across years were positive; arrangements of dyads, trios and quartets with higher ties strengths were visible at the beginning and end of the study. Both male-male and female-female bonds were stable over time. All flamingos were more frequently seen socialising than solitary; those in the largest flock showed the highest occurrence of social behaviour (irrespective of enclosure size differences). The number of connections realised from all available within a network was significantly influenced by season. Foot health did not predict associations in these three flamingo networks. Our results indicate that flamingo societies are complex (i.e. formed of long-standing preferential partnerships and not loose, random connections) and the impact of flock size and environment on sociality should be investigated further. These results are helpful for those working with captive flamingos to consider the number of birds housed so that an array of opportunities for choice of associate and/or breeding partner are available in zoo-housed flocks.

Social network analysis (SNA) is useful for evaluating management zoo regimes to ensure that any fitness benefits of sociality are preserved in captive-housed groups. This paper explores the association patterns of 13 giraffes housed at Longleat Safari Park, UK. Wild giraffes exhibit a fission–fusion social system with preferential bonding. As zoo-housed giraffes are common, they are excellent study subjects for using SNA to investigate key aspects of sociality within a managed social environment. Social bonds were assessed over different seasons and data from two study periods (2011 and 2015) were analyzed to see consistency of “social type” (i.e. more social or more solitary). Associations showed the occurrence of consistent preferential bonds between named individuals but time of year influenced the patterns of social bonds. Female-female bonds and female-offspring bonds appeared to be strongest. For animals present in 2011 and 2015, differences in time spent socializing between years were apparent. Results suggest that giraffes may be flexible in their choice of social partner and zoo-managed herds should include a range of individuals from which each animal can choose a preferred associate.

Lechwe are specialised wetland antelope that can have a strict social hierarchy or perform lekking during breeding. The southern lechwe (Kobus leche) and the Nile lechwe (K. megaceros) are both found in zoos globally, but little research is available to support husbandry decisions. The aim of this research was to investigate current housing and husbandry used for these lechwe across North American and European zoos. A survey was distributed to holders in 2018 and information on 33 herds (18 Nile and 15 southern) was collected. The survey focussed on population demographics, enclosure size, biologically relevant exhibit features, mixed-species holdings, nutrition, use of environmental enrichment and performance of abnormal repetitive behaviours. Results showed that lechwe were housed in herds with similar sex ratios to wild counterparts but with a potential lack of opportunity to lek. Many zoos provided wetland, but this was rarely actively managed, and not all zoos provided cover for hiding and retreat. Current feeding practice differed significantly compared to available antelope husbandry guidelines. No consistency in amounts of pellet, forage or produce provided to lechwe across institutions was found. Abnormal repetitive behaviour was noted by several zoos, but no significant predictor of such behaviour could be identified. Despite some identifiable recognition of ecology informing lechwe management, it is important that evidence-based husbandry decisions are made based on a species’ evolutionary pathway and ecological needs and some fundamental features of lechwe husbandry do not always correlate with the adaptive traits of a specialised wetland ungulate.

Welfare assessment is a tool to both identify welfare challenges and to evidence where current husbandry practices support positive welfare outcomes. Such tools are becoming more available and can be amended based on the nature of the facility and needs of taxonomic groups. Currently, welfare assessment has a strong mammalian theme, and some behavioural measures of welfare commonly applied to mammals do not translate well for other taxa. This paper provides a method for welfare assessment of Anseriformes; widely housed, diverse bird species kept under a range of management styles. A mixture of resource-based (i.e. determination of aspects of the physical environment or the bird’s physical appearance or activity) and animal-based (i.e. observations that equate to a bird’s feelings or personality characteristics) measures are integrated to enable a full review of potential predictors of welfare. The method provides a rapid and valid way for all personnel to collect information that evaluates quality-of-life experiences of the Anseriformes under their care. Explanations of key terminology are provided to enable repeatable and reliable assessment for all persons using the tool. Suggestions for follow-up actions are provided to emphasise why the welfare assessment process needs to be one of continual re-evaluation of animal care.

For specialised feeders, accessing food resources may impact on the performance of appetitive foraging and social behaviours at individual and population levels. Flamingos are excellent examples of social species with complex, species‐specific feeding strategies. As attainment of coloured plumage depends upon intake of dietary carotenoids, and as study of free‐ranging flamingos shows that foraging is disrupted by aggression from other birds, we investigated the effect of four feeding styles on foraging and aggression in captive lesser flamingos. We evaluated individual and group differences in foraging and aggression when birds consumed bespoke “flamingo pellet” from a bowl, an indoor feeding pool and an outdoor feeding section of their pool. Natural foraging (when birds were feeding irrespective of the presence of pellet) was recorded for comparison with artificial feeding styles. One‐minute long video footage of the birds' activities in these different locations, recorded between 2013 and 2016, was used to evaluate behaviour. Total number of seconds engaged in feeding and in aggression was recorded by continuous sampling. The colour of individual birds was scored from 1 (mainly white) to 4 (mainly pink). For natural filter feeding in the outdoor pool, maximum foraging was twice as much as bowl feeding, whilst aggression was less than half as much as other feeding methods. Overall, a more restricted feeding style significantly predicted aggression, along with increasing group size. Plumage colour significantly influenced aggression (brightest flamingos were more aggressive) and showed a non‐significant trend with foraging (brighter birds fed less than paler birds). No sex effect on feeding or aggression was found. This study enhances our understanding of husbandry and species' biology impacts on captive behaviour and provides data‐based evidence to improve food presentation. For flamingos, implementation of spacious outdoor feeding areas can encourage natural foraging patterns by reducing excess aggression and enhances welfare by improving flock social stability.

Same-sex pair bonds have been documented in several animal species and they are widespread in birds. However, little is known about the evolutionary origin and the adaptive value of such behaviour. The aim of this study was to investigate the parental behaviour of four zoo female greater flamingos involved in two breeding pairs, housed in a flock at Parco Natura Viva, Italy. Further, the behaviour of the study females was compared with that of male and female flamingos in heterosexual pairs described in a previous published work on this same flock. For each pair, the behaviour of both birds during the incubation period was recorded and twenty 10-minute sessions were run within the incubation period. A continuous focal animal sampling method was used to collect data on location (on the nest or not on the nest) and the parental care behaviour (e.g.: agonistic behaviours toward disturbing conspecifics, egg-care, nest-building, self-comfort behaviour, sleeping) of the two pairs. Data of the current study females were compared with those of females and males involved in heterosexual pairs of this same flock. Results showed that within each pair the egg-layer female stayed away from the nest more than the other female. In addition, the female that did not lay an egg was more involved in agonistic behaviour compared to other females, particularly when in specific locations. In heterosexual pairs, male flamingos were more involved in the incubation and in nest protection. Moreover, no significant differences in the time spent on the nest and away from the nest between the heterosexual male and the non-layer females of same-sex pairs were found. The same findings were reported when comparing heterosexual females and the egg-layer females of the same-sex pairs. Therefore, our findings suggest that in greater flamingos the behaviour of the female–female pairs seems to be equivalent to that of male-female bonds. Such research provides more insight into flamingo social behaviour, and their reproductive cycle, and provides information on why pair bonds may form and how these affect the wider breeding behaviour of the flock.

Turacos (Musophagidae) are common zoo birds; the 14 species of Tauraco being most often exhibited. Turacos possess unique non-structural, copper-based feather pigments, and a specialized dietary strategy. Tauraco inhabit tropical woodlands, foraging for predominantly folivorous and/or frugivorous food items. Using a study population of 16 red-crested turacos (T. erythrolophus) at seven zoos in the United Kingdom, the nutrient composition of diets from diet sheets was calculated, using Zootrition v.2.6, Saint Louis Zoo, USA for analyses of important nutrients within each diet, and compared against an example of currently available literature. For all nutrients analyzed, significant differences were noted between amounts presented in each zoo's diet (as fed). Turacos are presented with a wide range of ingredients in diets fed, and all zoos use domestic fruits to a large extent in captive diets. Similarities exist between zoos when comparing amounts of as-fed fiber. Analysis of the calcium to phosphorous ratio for these diets showed there to be no significant difference from the published ratio available. While this is a small-scale study on only a limited number of zoos, it provides useful information on current feeding practice for a commonly-housed species of bird and highlights potential areas of deviation away from standard practice, as well as identifying ways of reducing wastage of food. Data on wild foraging behavior and food selection, or collaboration with tauraco keepers from institutions in the tropics, is recommended as a way of improving feeding regimes and updating feeding practice for this and other Tauraco species.

In this response, we show how the points raised in Rose et al. (2017) are relevant across taxa. The original article reviewed literature on 3 basic “groups” of animal, with a specific remit of identifying welfare needs within these groups. The focus of this article did not intend to exclude other types of animal but to show the extent of research needs in those already studied. The ideas presented are relevant to those studying other taxa, specifically scientists and zoo biologists with more expertise and knowledge of invertebrates. We feel that there is much to be gained from collaboration between individuals and institutions to adapt the questions for assaying welfare proposed by Rose et al. (2017) to a wider range of captive vertebrate and invertebrate taxa.

Aggressive behavioural interactions between animals are widespread in nature, with ecological and evolutionary consequences of such interactions reported for both individuals giving and receiving aggression. Yet despite the importance of aggressive interactions in determining social dominance and conferring fitness benefits to successful individuals, we lack a general understanding of the conditions that influence the variation in agonistic behaviours among individuals and species. We conducted a global meta-analysis of published time–activity budgets, using a data set comprising 555 values from 88 studies, to determine variation in the time that waterbirds engaged in aggressive interactions. The mean ± SD percentage of time devoted to aggression was 2.0 ± 3.6%, with a range of 0.0–35.0%. We used our data set to test four predictions regarding avian aggression, based on the findings of earlier site-based studies. We predicted that the time spent on aggression would be influenced by four factors: (1) age class, (2) sex, (3) seasonal timing and (4) functional feeding group. A comparison of linear mixed-effects models using an information theoretic approach indicated that the proportion of time waterbirds spent engaged in aggressive interactions was best explained by the age class and sex of the focal waterbird species. More time was spent on aggression by males than females, and by adults than juveniles. We found no evidence that the time spent on aggressive behaviours varied across latitudes or body mass, with seasonal timing, sexual dimorphism, migration or breeding strategies, or between different functional feeding groups. Our findings highlight the high levels of variation in the time devoted to aggression across species, feeding groups, latitudes and seasons. Furthermore, our study demonstrates the utility of the numerous published time–activity budget studies that are available as a valuable source of data that can be used to answer broad-scale questions regarding animal behaviour.

Flamingos are ubiquitous captive species (potentially the world's most commonly kept zoo bird) that have long lifespans and unique breeding cycles. In-depth research into the links between provision (enclosure, husbandry), behavioural performance (reflecting internal motivation) and perceived welfare state (from behavioural cues) can inform management for good welfare over the many decades of a bird's life, and benefit reproductive output. Here, the published literature on flamingo husbandry is reviewed, with reference to our current understanding of flamingo behaviour in the wild. Evaluation of whole-flock time budgets and assessment of behavioural diversity can highlight any deviation from a norm. Several published works suggest ways of improving breeding success in captive flamingos by re-evaluating husbandry routines as well as highlighting minimum numbers of birds per flock for 'good welfare'. Research has shown that some aspects of zoo-flamingo activity can match that of wild birds. Further examination of specific behaviour patterns, as well as the motivations for these, would allow for evidence-based enclosure design and provision of species-specific behavioural husbandry. Future research topics covering social support, foraging activity and developing a definition of 'positive welfare activity' would further enhance zoo management practices for these birds. © 2014 the Zoological Society of London.

The Malayan, or Asian, tapir (Tapirus indicus) has a diminishing wild population and is becoming more common in captivity as zoos attempt to manage sustainable ex situ populations. Tapirs can be relatively easy to maintain and breed, but captive animals appear to suffer from reduced activity budgets, obesity, and poor public image. A questionnaire-based survey was designed and sent specifically to 10 collections around the world that exhibit Malayan tapirs, with the aim of assessing husbandry regimes to determine prevalence of standardized practices as well as highlighting any key differences, and to showcase good practice, thus providing information beneficial to those maintaining this species in their zoo. Twenty-five animals were included in the survey from collections across four continents. The research's major conclusions show differing dietary make-up, with a lack of forage provision, contrasting with a diverse array of enrichment protocols used. Significant differences were noted between zoos for total amount of food offered (P = 0.000) as well as ratios of forage to concentrate pellet offered (P = 0.004). Comparing food offered to male and female tapirs with published requirements for an "average" of either gender shows not all zoos providing the amount suggested in husbandry guidelines. Intelligently designed and original enrichment was provided to all animals but differences between zoos were noted in the application and "usefulness" of enrichment for individual tapir. Overall, animals are benefiting from enrichment but welfare could be further improved via consistent feeding of ad libitum forage and regular use of browse as a constituent part of daily rations. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.