Abstract
. The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine bidirectional associations of adolescents’ internalizing symptoms with dating violence victimization and perpetration. We conducted secondary analyses of the Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development data (n = 974). Each adolescent completed items from the Conflict Tactics Scale (at ages 15 and 17 years) to assess psychological, physical, and sexual dating violence victimization and perpetration in the past 12 months. Adolescents’ symptoms of depression and general anxiety in the past 12 months were self-reported (at ages 15 and 17 years) using the Mental Health and Social Inadaptation Assessment for Adolescents. There were concurrent associations of adolescents’ internalizing symptoms with dating violence victimization and perpetration. Internalizing symptoms at age 15 years were positively associated with dating violence victimization and perpetration 2 years later in both males and females, even after adjusting for baseline characteristics. However, neither dating violence victimization nor perpetration at age 15 years was associated with internalizing symptoms 2 years later. For males and females, internalizing symptoms put adolescents at risk for future dating violence victimization and perpetration. Interventions that target internalizing symptoms may have the potential to decrease subsequent dating violence.

Introduction: Anhedonia, defined as a loss of interest and pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, is a core symptom of depression that predicts a poor treatment response in adolescents. We know little about the cognitive vulnerability factors that contribute to the development of anhedonia in youth. This cross-sectional and longitudinal survey study investigated the link between anhedonia symptoms and cognitive appraisal of positive affect.

Methods: Baseline data were collected from 392 secondary school students in the UK (aged 13-16, 54 % Female), 170 of whom went on to complete the three-month follow-up assessment (a 43 % response rate). Participants rated their anhedonia symptoms and appraisal styles which were measured in terms of use of amplifying appraisals, dampening appraisals, and fear of positive emotion.

Results: at baseline, greater anhedonia was significantly associated with increased levels of dampening and reduced levels of amplifying but was not significantly related to fear of positive emotion. Prospectively, greater baseline levels of amplifying uniquely predicted lower anhedonia severity at three-month follow-up, and vice-versa. There was no evidence for reciprocal prospective associations between anhedonia and, appraisal styles of dampening and fear of positive emotion.

Conclusion: These results indicate that cognitive appraisal of positive affect is associated with concurrent and to some extent can predict future symptoms of anhedonia in youth.

The quality of father–child interactions has become a focus of increasing research in the field of child development. We examined the potential contribution of father–child interactions at both 3 months and 24 months to children's cognitive development at 24 months. Observational measures of father–child interactions at 3 and 24 months were used to assess the quality of fathers’ parenting (n = 192). At 24 months, the Mental Developmental Index (MDI) of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Second Edition (N. Bayley,) measured cognitive functioning. The association between interactions and cognitive development was examined using multiple linear regression analyses, adjusting for paternal age, education and depression, infant age, and maternal sensitivity. Children whose fathers displayed more withdrawn and depressive behaviors in father–infant interactions at 3 months scored lower on the MDI at 24 months. At 24 months, children whose fathers were more engaged and sensitive as well as those whose fathers were less controlling in their interactions scored higher on the MDI. These findings were independent of the effects of maternal sensitivity. Results indicate that father–child interactions, even from a very young age (i.e. 3 months) may influence children's cognitive development. They highlight the potential significance of interventions to promote positive parenting by fathers and policies that encourage fathers to spend more time with their young children.

OBJECTIVE: the current study introduces the Parental Emotional Response to Children Index (PERCI), a new questionnaire specifically designed to measure parents' emotional response to ADHD and related behaviors (delay discounting and delay aversion). METHOD: the PERCI was completed by parents of 6- to 14-year-old children with ( n = 126) and without ( n = 160) ADHD. RESULTS: Factor analysis confirmed five separate subscales with acceptable psychometric properties. Parents of children with ADHD reported a stronger emotional response to ADHD behaviors than parents of typically developing children and inattention symptoms evoked the strongest emotional response in parents regardless of child diagnostic status. CONCLUSION: Parents' emotional responses appear to be differentiated in terms of specific ADHD-related triggers mapping onto the different domains of ADHD and delay-related responses. Further research is required to understand changes in parental emotional responses over time and their impact on children's developmental trajectories.

BACKGROUND: the quality of parenting is associated with a wide range of child and adult outcomes, and there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of parenting show patterns of intergenerational transmission. This study aimed to determine whether such intergenerational transmission occurs in mothers and fathers in a UK birth cohort. METHODS: the study sample consisted of 146 mothers and 146 fathers who were recruited from maternity wards in England and followed up for 24 months ['Generation 2' (G2)]. Perceptions of their own parenting [by 'Generation1' (G1)] were assessed from G2 parents at 12 months using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). G2 parents were filmed interacting with their 'Generation 3' (G3) children at 24 months. RESULTS: We found that G1 mothers' 'affection' was associated with positive parenting behaviour in the G2 fathers ('positive responsiveness' β = 0.19, P = 0.04 and 'cognitive stimulation' β = 0.26, P < 0.01). G1 mothers' 'control' was associated with negative parenting behaviour in G2 mothers (decreased 'engagement' β = -0.19, P = 0.04), and negative parenting behaviour in G2 fathers (increased 'control' β = 0.18, P = 0.05). None of the G1 fathers' parenting variables were significantly associated with G2 parenting. CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence of intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviour in this highly educated UK cohort, with reported parenting of grandmothers associated with observed parenting in both mothers and fathers. No association was seen with reported parenting of grandfathers. This raises the possibility that parenting interventions may have benefits that are realised across generations.

SYNOPSIS: Objective. Paternal depressive disorder is associated with adverse effects on child development. One possible mechanism for this is through the effects of the disorder on parenting capacities. The link between paternal depression and father–infant interactions was investigated at three-months postpartum. Design. Major depressive disorder was assessed in N = 192 fathers using a structured clinical interview (SCID). Altogether, 54 fathers met criteria for depression, and 99 fathers were categorized as non-depressed. Observational assessments of face-to-face father–infant interactions were conducted in an infant-seat setting and a floor-mat setting. Associations between paternal depression and father–infant interactions were analyzed. Results. Paternal depression is associated with more withdrawn parental behavior in interactions on the floor-mat. There were few other differences in observed interaction between depressed and non-depressed fathers. Conclusions. Fathers with depression may be more withdrawn, displaying less verbal and behavioral stimulation during interactions with their young infants. They may initiate a pattern of parenting that remains compromised, potentially affecting their children’s development.

Low birth weight is associated with increased risk for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD); however, the etiological underpinnings of this relationship remain unclear. This study investigated if genetic variants in angiogenic, dopaminergic, neurotrophic, kynurenine, and cytokine-related biological pathways moderate the relationship between birth weight and ADHD symptom severity. A total of 398 youth from two multi-site, family-based studies of ADHD were included in the analysis. The sample consisted of 360 ADHD probands, 21 affected siblings, and 17 unaffected siblings. A set of 164 SNPs from 31 candidate genes, representing five biological pathways, were included in our analyses. Birth weight and gestational age data were collected from a state birth registry, medical records, and parent report. Generalized Estimating Equations tested for main effects and interactions between individual SNPs and birth weight centile in predicting ADHD symptom severity. SNPs within neurotrophic (NTRK3) and cytokine genes (CNTFR) were associated with ADHD inattentive symptom severity. There was no main effect of birth weight centile on ADHD symptom severity. SNPs within angiogenic (NRP1 & NRP2), neurotrophic (NTRK1 & NTRK3), cytokine (IL16 & S100B), and kynurenine (CCBL1 & CCBL2) genes moderate the association between birth weight centile and ADHD symptom severity. The SNP main effects and SNP×birth weight centile interactions remained significant after adjusting for multiple testing. Genetic variability in angiogenic, neurotrophic, and inflammatory systems may moderate the association between restricted prenatal growth, a proxy for an adverse prenatal environment, and risk to develop ADHD.

Although existing research has shown that depression in parents has a negative effect on parent-child interactions, the mechanisms underpinning impaired parenting are still unknown. In this editorial, we review core difficulties that have been noted in depressed individuals including reduced positive and increased negative affect, poor emotion regulation, executive function deficits, reduced motivation and rumination, and discuss how each of these can alter parenting. We suggest that these causal processes are inter-related and can interact with one another in affecting parenting. We conclude that an improved understanding of these processes will have implications for the development of more specific and potentially more effective treatments that have the potential to break the intergenerational transmission of psychopathology.

BACKGROUND: Factors related to parents and parenting capacities are important predictors of the development of behavioural problems in children. Recently, there has been an increasing research focus in this field on the earliest years of life, however, relatively few studies have addressed the role of fathers, despite this appearing to be particularly pertinent to child behavioural development. This study aimed to examine whether father-infant interactions at age 3 months independently predicted child behavioural problems at 1 year of age. METHOD: a sample of 192 families was recruited from two maternity units in the United Kingdom. Father-infant interactions were assessed in the family home and coded using the global rating scales. Child behaviour problems were assessed by maternal report. Hierarchical and logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations between father-infant interaction and the development of behavioural problems. RESULTS: Disengaged and remote interactions between fathers and their infants were found to predict externalising behavioural problems at the age of 1 year. The children of the most disengaged fathers had an increased risk of developing early externalising behavioural problems [disengaged (nonintrusive) interactions--adjusted odds ratio 5.33 (95% confidence interval; 1.39, 20.40): remote interactions adj. OR 3.32 (0.92, 12.05)]. CONCLUSIONS: Disengaged interactions of fathers with their infants, as early as the third month of life, predict early behavioural problems in children. These interactions may be critical factors to address, from a very early age in the child's life, and offer a potential opportunity for preventive intervention.

BACKGROUND: High levels of expressed emotion (EE) in parents have been found to put children at risk for emotional and behavioural problems. However, the majority of existing studies have focused on mothers of school-aged children and adolescents rather than younger children, and have only rarely included fathers. METHODS: the present study examined the reliability of EE in mothers and fathers of 1-year old children. It also investigated whether depression and marital problems in the postnatal period predicted EE toward the child at 12 months. EE was assessed with the Preschool Five Minute Speech Sample in 163 families. RESULTS: the rater-interrater and code-recode reliability was high for most EE dimensions. Mothers and fathers were found to display quite similar EE scores. Regression analyses showed that depression and couple relationship significantly predicted EE in mothers, but not fathers. CONCLUSIONS: the findings suggest that EE provides a reliable and useful assessment of the family environment in families of young children.

OBJECTIVE: We used multi-level modelling of sibling-pair data to disentangle the influence of proband-specific and more general family influences on maternal expressed emotion (MEE) toward children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHOD: MEE was measured using the Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) for 60 sibling pairs (aged 5 through 17 years) each comprising one proband with ADHD and one child without ADHD. Questionnaire measures were used to assess child and adolescent conduct and emotional problems and maternal depression and ADHD. Multi-level models partitioned the effects of five MEE components (initial statement [IS], relationship [REL], warmth [WAR], critical comments [CC], and positive comments [PC]) into proband-specific and general family effects. RESULTS: Significant proband-specific effects were confirmed for all MEE components, with higher levels of MEE expressed toward probands with ADHD than siblings without ADHD. For REL, PC, and CC, this effect was explained by comorbid child conduct problems rather than ADHD. Only low WAR was associated with child ADHD itself. Furthermore, only low WAR was related to variations in more general family characteristics, especially levels of maternal depression. CONCLUSIONS: MEE toward children with ADHD was influenced by proband-specific factors. For most components, these were driven by comorbid symptoms of conduct problems rather than ADHD itself. WAR was different; it was influenced by both child-specific and more general characteristics of the family. Further studies utilising a longitudinal design are required to establish the direction of causation and extend our understanding of the relationship between EE components and ADHD.

BACKGROUND: Maternal depression is common and is known to affect both maternal and child health. One of the mechanisms by which maternal depression exerts its effects on child health is through an increased rate of parental disharmony. Fathers also experience depression, but the impact of this on family functioning has been less studied. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between paternal depressive disorder and family and child functioning, in the first 3 months of a child's life. METHODS: a controlled study comparing individual and familial outcomes in fathers with (n = 54) and without diagnosed depressive disorder (n = 99). Parental couple functioning and child temperament were assessed by both paternal and maternal report. RESULTS: Depression in fathers is associated with an increased risk of disharmony in partner relationships, reported by both fathers and their partners, controlling for maternal depression. Few differences in infant's reported temperament were found in the early postnatal period. CONCLUSIONS: These findings emphasize the importance of considering the potential for men, as well as women, to experience depression in the postnatal period. Paternal symptoms hold the potential to impact upon fathers, their partners, and their children.

BACKGROUND: Postnatal depression commonly affects women after the birth of a child, and is associated with an increased risk of adverse outcomes for their children. A wide variety of measures have been used to screen for depression in the postnatal period but little research has investigated such measures with men. However depression can also affect men at this time, and this is associated with an independently increased risk of adverse child outcomes. The present study aimed to determine whether a reliable cut off point for the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) can be established to screen fathers. METHOD: a sample of fathers was sent the EPDS at 7 weeks after the birth of their child. A structured clinical interview was conducted with 192 men to determine whether they were suffering from depression. RESULTS: Fathers with depression scored significantly higher on the EPDS than non-depressed fathers. A score of greater than 10 was found to be the optimal cut off point for screening for depression, with a sensitivity of 89.5% and a specificity of 78.2%. LIMITATIONS: the relatively modest participation rate means the results may not be fully generalisable to the whole population. CONCLUSION: the EPDS is shown to have reasonable sensitivity and specificity at a cut off score of over 10. The study shows that it is possible to screen fathers for depression in the postnatal period and it may be valuable to administer this measure to new fathers.

BACKGROUND: Expressed Emotions (EE) are associated with oppositional behavior (OPB) in children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). EE has been linked to altered stress responses in some disorders, but ADHD has not been studied. We test the hypothesis that OPB in ADHD is mediated by altered stress-related cortisol reactivity to EE. METHODS: Two groups of children (with/without ADHD) and their respective parents were randomly assigned to two different conditions with/without negative emotion and participated in an emotion provocation task. Parents' EE, their ratings of their children's OPB and their children's salivary cortisol levels were measured. RESULTS: Low parental warmth was associated with OPB in ADHD. High levels of parental EE elicited a larger cortisol response. Stress-related cortisol reactivity mediated the EE-OPB link for all children. This highlights the general importance of parent-child interactions on externalizing behavior problems. CONCLUSION: High EE is a salient stressor for ADHD children that leads to increased levels of cortisol and OPB. The development of OPB might be mediated by the stress-response to high EE.

The revised new forest parenting programme (NFPP) is an 8-week psychological intervention designed to treat ADHD in preschool children by targeting, amongst other things, both underlying impairments in self-regulation and the quality of mother-child interactions. Forty-one children were randomized to either the revised NFPP or treatment as usual conditions. Outcomes were ADHD and ODD symptoms measured using questionnaires and direct observation, mothers' mental health and the quality of mother-child interactions. Effects of the revised NFPP on ADHD symptoms were large (effect size >1) and significant and effects persisted for 9 weeks post-intervention. Effects on ODD symptoms were less marked. There were no improvements in maternal mental health or parenting behavior during mother-child interaction although there was a drop in mothers' negative and an increase in their positive comments during a 5-min speech sample. The small-scale trial, although limited in power and generalizability, provides support for the efficacy of the revised NFPP. The findings need to be replicated in a larger more diverse sample.

It is hypothesised that autism symptoms are present in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), are familial and index subtypes of ADHD. Autism symptoms were compared in 821 ADHD probands, 1050 siblings and 149 controls. Shared familiality of autism symptoms and ADHD was calculated using DeFries-Fulker analysis. Autism symptoms were higher in probands than siblings or controls, and higher in male siblings than male controls. Autism symptoms were familial, partly shared with familiality of ADHD in males. Latent class analysis using SCQ-score yielded five classes; Class 1(31%) had few autism symptoms and low comorbidity; Classes 2-4 were intermediate; Class 5(7%) had high autism symptoms and comorbidity. Thus autism symptoms in ADHD represent a familial trait associated with increased neurodevelopmental and oppositional/conduct disorders.

BACKGROUND: Delay-related motivational processes are impaired in children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Here we explore the impact of ADHD on the performance of three putative indices of Delay Aversion (DAv): (i) the choice for immediate over delayed reward; (ii) slower reaction times following delay; and (iii) increased delay-related frustration-to see whether these tap into a common DAv construct that differentiates ADHD cases from controls and shows evidence of familiality. METHOD: Seventy seven male and female individuals (age range 6-17) with a research diagnosis combined type ADHD, 65 of their siblings unaffected by ADHD and 50 non-ADHD controls completed three delay tasks. RESULTS: As predicted the size of the correlation between tasks was small but a common latent component was apparent. Children with ADHD differed from controls on all tasks (d=.4-.7) and on an overall DAv index (d=.9): the battery as a whole demonstrated moderate sensitivity and specificity. In general, deficits were equally marked in childhood and adolescence and were independent of comorbid ODD. IQ moderated the effect on the MIDA. Scores on the DAv factor co-segregated within ADHD families. DISCUSSION: There is value in exploring the broader DAv phenotype in ADHD. The results illustrate the power of multivariate approaches to endophenotypes. By highlighting the significant, but limited, role of DAv in ADHD these results are consistent with recent accounts that emphasize neuropsychological heterogeneity.

BACKGROUND: Mothers' positive emotions expressed about their children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with a reduced likelihood of comorbid conduct problems (CP). We examined whether this association with CP, and one with emotional problems (EMO), is moderated by variants within three genes, previously reported to be associated with ADHD and to moderate the impact of environmental risks on conduct and/or emotional problems; the dopamine transporter gene (SLC6A3/DAT1), the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) and the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4/5HTT). METHODS: Seven hundred and twenty-eight males between the ages of 5 and 17 with a DSM-IV research diagnosis of combined type ADHD were included in these analyses. Parents and teachers rated children's conduct and emotional problems. Positive maternal expressed emotion (PMEE) was coded by independent observers on comments made during a clinical assessment with the mother based on current or recent medication-free periods. RESULTS: Sensitivity to the effects of PMEE on CP was moderated by variants of the DAT1 and 5HTT genes. Only children who did not carry the DAT1 10R/10R or the 5HTT l/l genotypes showed altered levels of CP when exposed to PMEE. The effect was most marked where the child with ADHD had both these genotypes. For EMO, sensitivity to PMEE was found only with those who carried the DAT1 9R/9R. There was no effect of DRD4 on CP or EMO. CONCLUSION: the gene-environment interactions observed suggested that genetic make-up can alter the degree of sensitivity an ADHD patients has to their family environment. Further research should focus on distinguishing general sensitivity genotypes from those conferring risk or protective qualities.

Psychiatric disorders of parents are associated with an increased risk of psychological and developmental difficulties in their children. Most research has focused on mothers, neglecting psychiatric disorders affecting fathers. We review findings on paternal psychiatric disorders and their effect on children's psychosocial development. Most psychiatric disorders that affect fathers are associated with an increased risk of behavioural and emotional difficulties in their children, similar in magnitude to that due to maternal psychiatric disorders. Some findings indicate that boys are at greater risk than girls, and that paternal disorders, compared with maternal disorders, might be associated with an increased risk of behavioural rather than emotional problems. Improved paternal mental health is likely to improve children's wellbeing and life course.

As part of the International Multi-centre ADHD Genetics project we completed an affected sibling pair study of 142 narrowly defined Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) proband-sibling pairs. No linkage was observed on the most established ADHD-linked genomic regions of 5p and 17p. We found suggestive linkage signals on chromosomes 9 and 16, respectively, with the highest multipoint nonparametric linkage signal on chromosome 16q23 at 99 cM (log of the odds, LOD=3.1) overlapping data published from the previous UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) (LOD>1, approximately 95 cM) and Dutch (LOD>1, approximately 100 cM) studies. The second highest peak in this study was on chromosome 9q22 at 90 cM (LOD=2.13); both the previous UCLA and German studies also found some evidence of linkage at almost the same location (UCLA LOD=1.45 at 93 cM; German LOD=0.68 at 100 cM). The overlap of these two main peaks with previous findings suggests that loci linked to ADHD may lie within these regions. Meta-analysis or reanalysis of the raw data of all the available ADHD linkage scan data may help to clarify whether these represent true linked loci.

Common disorders of childhood and adolescence are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and conduct disorder (CD). For one to two cases in three diagnosed with ADHD the disorders may be comorbid. However, whether comorbid conduct problems (CP) represents a separate disorder or a severe form of ADHD remains controversial. We investigated familial recurrence patterns of the pure or comorbid condition in families with at least two children and one definite case of DSM-IV ADHDct (combined-type) as part of the International Multicentre ADHD Genetics Study (IMAGE). Using case diagnoses (PACS, parental account) and symptom ratings (Parent/Teacher Strengths and Difficulties [SDQ], and Conners Questionnaires [CPTRS]) we studied 1009 cases (241 with ADHDonly and 768 with ADHD + CP), and their 1591 siblings. CP was defined as > or =4 on the SDQ conduct-subscale, and T > or = 65, on Conners' oppositional-score. Multinomial logistic regression was used to ascertain recurrence risks of the pure and comorbid conditions in the siblings as predicted by the status of the cases. There was a higher relative risk to develop ADHD + CP for siblings of cases with ADHD + CP (RRR = 4.9; 95%CI: 2.59-9.41); p < 0.001) than with ADHDonly. Rates of ADHDonly in siblings of cases with ADHD + CP were lower but significant (RRR = 2.9; 95%CI: 1.6-5.3, p < 0.001). Children with ADHD + CP scored higher on the Conners ADHDct symptom-scales than those with ADHDonly. Our finding that ADHD + CP can represent a familial distinct subtype possibly with a distinct genetic etiology is consistent with a high risk for cosegregation. Further, ADHD + CP can be a more severe disorder than ADHDonly with symptoms stable from childhood through adolescence. The findings provide partial support for the ICD-10 distinction between hyperkinetic disorder (F90.0) and hyperkinetic conduct disorder (F90.1).

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a discrete clinical syndrome characterized by the triad of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in the context of marked impairments. Molecular genetic studies have been successful in identifying genetic variants associated with ADHD, particularly with DSM-IV inattentive and combined subtypes. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) approaches to linkage and association mapping have yet to be widely used in ADHD research, although twin studies investigating individual differences suggest that genetic liability for ADHD is continuously distributed throughout the population, underscoring the applicability of quantitative dimensional approaches. To investigate the appropriateness of QTL approaches, we tested the familial association between 894 probands with a research diagnosis of DSM-IV ADHD combined type and continuous trait measures among 1,135 of their siblings unselected for phenotype. The sibling recurrence rate for ADHD combined subtype was 12.7%, yielding a sibling recurrence risk ratio (lambda(sib)) of 9.0. Estimated sibling correlations around 0.2-0.3 are similar to those estimated from the analysis of fraternal twins in population twin samples. We further show that there are no threshold effects on the sibling risk for ADHD among the ADHD probands; and that both affected and unaffected siblings contributed to the association with ADHD trait scores. In conclusion, these data confirm the main requirement for QTL mapping of ADHD by demonstrating that narrowly defined DSM-IV combined type probands show familial association with dimensional ADHD symptom scores amongst their siblings.

The impact of similarity in parent and child characteristics on the quality of parenting is underresearched. The current study examined the interaction between mother and child attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms on parenting. Two hypotheses were tested: the similarity-fit hypothesis, which predicted that parent and child similarity will improve parenting, and the similarity-misfit hypothesis, which predicted the opposite. Study 1 examined the associations between maternal and child ADHD symptoms and child-specific rearing attitudes of 95 mothers with school-aged children. In Study 2 this analysis was extended to more objective observer-rated mother-child interaction and maternal expressed emotion in 192 mothers of preschool children. Child ADHD symptoms were associated with negative maternal comments and maternal ADHD symptoms with negative expressed emotion. In both studies maternal ADHD symptoms appeared to ameliorate the effects of child ADHD symptoms on negative parenting. Parental response to children with high ADHD symptoms was more positive and affectionate when the mother also had high ADHD symptoms. The results support the similarity-fit hypothesis and highlight the importance of considering both child and maternal ADHD symptoms in studies of parenting.

BACKGROUND: Limited success has been achieved through previous attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) linkage scans, which were all designed to map genes underlying the dichotomous phenotype. The International Multi-centre ADHD Genetics (IMAGE) project performed a whole genome linkage scan specifically designed to map ADHD quantitative trait loci (QTL). METHODS: a set of 1094 single selected Caucasian ADHD nuclear families was genotyped on a highly accurate and informative single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel. Two quantitative traits measuring the children's symptoms in home and school settings were collected and standardized according to a population sample of 8000 children to reflect the developmental nature and gender prevalence difference of ADHD. Univariate linkage test was performed on both traits and their mean score. RESULTS: a significant common linkage locus was found at chromosome 1p36 with a locus-specific heritability of 5.1% and a genomewide empirical p <. 04. Setting-specific suggestive linkage signals were also found: logarithm of odds (LOD) = 2.2 at 9p23 for home trait and LOD = 2.6 at 11q21 for school trait. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that given large samples with proper phenotypic measures, searching for ADHD genes with a QTL strategy is an important alternative to using the clinical diagnosis. The fact that our linkage region 1p36 overlaps with the dyslexia QTL DYX8 further suggests it is potentially a pleiotropic locus for ADHD and dyslexia.

Background: Parenting empathy, the understanding by parents, and the sharing in their child's perspective, represents an important element of competent parenting. The present study tested the hypotheses that maternal empathy might be lower where mothers or their children display symptoms of psychopathology. Method: Mothers (N = 268) of school-aged children completed questionnaires on child-directed empathy and egoistic personal distress and their own and their child's symptoms of psychopathology across a number of broadly defined domains. Results: Child conduct problems were associated with decreased child-directed empathy and increased maternal egoistic distress. Maternal aggressive characteristics and maternal ADHD symptoms were each associated with increased egoistic personal distress. Conclusion: the findings indicate that symptoms of psychopathology in children and adults are associated with deficits in empathy and increased maternal egoistic personal distress. The implications of the findings for responsive parenting and child social behaviour are discussed. © 2008 the British Psychological Society.

INTRODUCTION: Evidence suggests that mothers are negative and critical when talking about their children with behaviour problems. However the association with specific types of behaviour problems and the influence of both child and adult psychopathology on these relationships require further clarification. METHODS: Speech samples were gathered from mothers of 100 school-aged boys and coded using standard Expressed Emotion (EE) categories. Levels of maternal and child psychopathology were ascertained using standardised questionnaires completed by the mother. RESULTS: There were significant and positive correlations between criticism and child ADHD, conduct and emotional symptoms respectively. There were also significant and negative correlations between EOI and child ADHD and conduct problems. CONCLUSIONS: the findings of the current study suggest that when considered together EE is driven more by the child rather than by maternal characteristics and these effects are specific to conduct and emotional problems. The implications of the findings are discussed.

Mother and child ADHD symptoms both have a negative effect on parenting. Little is known about how these characteristics interact. In a recent paper, we reported two studies that suggested that maternal ADHD ameliorated the negative effects of child ADHD on negative parenting supporting a similarity-fit hypothesis. The aim of the current paper is to extend this analysis to a sample of mothers and fathers. The study examined the association between child and adult ADHD symptoms on child-specific parenting practices in 278 mothers and 85 fathers from a population-based sample of school-age children. As in the previous study, high levels of ADHD symptoms in mothers ameliorated the negative effects of child ADHD on parenting- supporting the similarityfit hypothesis. Fathers demonstrated the opposite effect with high levels of ADHD exacerbating the effects of child ADHD - supporting a similarity-misfit hypothesis. The study confirms the important role played by parental ADHD symptoms in parenting while highlighting differences between mothers and fathers in this regard. © 2007 the British Psychological Society.