Publications by year
In Press
Hardy L, Hogarth L (In Press). A novel concurrent pictorial choice model of mood-induced relapse in hazardous drinkers. Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology
Hogarth L (In Press). Addiction is driven by excessive goal-directed drug choice under negative affect: Translational critique of habit and compulsion theory. Neuropsychopharmacology
Rose AK, Brown K, MacKillop J, Field M, Hogarth L (In Press). Alcohol devaluation has dissociable effects on distinct components of alcohol behaviour. Psychopharmacology
Hogarth L, Mathew AR, Hitsman B (In Press). Current major depression is associated with greater sensitivity to the motivational effect of both negative mood induction and abstinence on tobacco-seeking behavior. Drug and Alcohol Dependence
Hogarth L, Seabrooke T, Edmunds C, Mitchell C (In Press). Goal-directed control in Pavlovian-instrumental transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition
Hogarth L (In Press). State Anxiety and Alcohol Choice: Evidence from Experimental and Online Observational Studies. Journal of Psychopharmacology
Hogarth L, Shuai R, Bakou AE, Hardy L (In Press). Ultra-brief breath counting (mindfulness) training promotes recovery from stress-induced alcohol-seeking in student drinkers. Addictive Behaviors
2023
Chentsova VO, Bravo AJ, Pilatti A, Pautassi RM, Mezquita L, Hogarth L, Team C-CAS (2023). Age of First Use, Age of Habitual Use, and Problematic Alcohol Use: a Cross-cultural Examination Among Young Adults in Seven Countries. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction
Norton EO, Hailemeskel R, Bravo AJ, Pilatti A, Kaminer D, Conway CC, Mezquita L, Hogarth L (2023). Childhood Traumatic Experiences and Negative Alcohol-Related Consequences in Adulthood: a Cross-Cultural Examination of Distress Tolerance and Drinking to Cope. Substance Use & Misuse, 58(6), 804-811.
Gollan JK, Liverant G, Jao NC, Lord KA, Whitton AE, Hogarth L, Fox E, Bauer A-M, Quinn MH, Pizzagalli DA, et al (2023). Depression Severity Moderates Reward Learning Among Smokers with Current or Past Major Depressive Disorder in a Smoking Cessation Randomized Clinical Trial.
Nicotine and Tobacco ResearchAbstract:
Depression Severity Moderates Reward Learning Among Smokers with Current or Past Major Depressive Disorder in a Smoking Cessation Randomized Clinical Trial
Abstract
.
. Introduction
. Behavioral and pharmacological smoking cessation treatments are hypothesized to increase patients’ reward learning to reduce craving. Identifying changes in reward learning processes that support effective tobacco-dependence interventions among smokers who experience depression may guide patients toward efficient treatment strategies. The objective was to investigate the extent to which adult daily cigarette smokers with current or past major depressive disorder (MDD) learned to seek reward during 12 weeks of treatment combining behavioral activation and varenicline. We hypothesized that a decline in reward learning would be attenuated (least to most) in the following order: (1) behavioral activation integrated with ST (BASC)â€
+â€
varenicline, (2) BASCâ€
+â€
placebo, (3) standard behavioral cessation treatment (ST)â€
+â€
varenicline, (4) STâ€
+â€
placebo.
.
.
. Methods
. We ran a phase IV, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial with 300 participants receiving 12 weeks of one of four conditions across two urban medical centers. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI). Reward learning was ascertained at weeks 1, 7, and 14 using the Probabilistic Reward Task (PRT), a laboratory task that uses an asymmetric reinforcement schedule to assess (a) learning to seek reward (response bias), (b) differentiate between stimuli, and (c) time to react to cues.
.
.
. Results
. There was a significant interaction of BDI groupâ€
×â€
PRT response bias. Response bias declined from weeks 7 to 14 among participants with high baseline depression symptoms. The other two BDI groups showed no change in response bias.
.
.
. Conclusions
. Controlling for baseline depression, participants showed a decrease in response bias from weeks 1 to 14, and from weeks 7 to 14. Treatment condition and abstinence status were unassociated with change in reward learning.
.
.
. Implications
. Smokers who report greater depression severity show a decline in reward learning despite their participation in smoking cessation treatments, suggesting that depressed populations pose unique challenges with standard smoking cessation approaches.
.
.
. Trial Registration
. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02378714.
.
Abstract.
Shuai R, Magner-Parsons B, Hogarth L (2023). Drinking to Cope is Uniquely Associated with Less Specific and Bleaker Future Goal Generation in Young Hazardous Drinkers.
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral AssessmentAbstract:
Drinking to Cope is Uniquely Associated with Less Specific and Bleaker Future Goal Generation in Young Hazardous Drinkers
Groups with mental health and/or substance use problems generate less detailed descriptions of their future goals. As substance use to cope with negative affect is common to both groups, this characteristic might be uniquely associated with less specific goal descriptions. To test this prediction, 229 past year hazardous drinking undergraduates aged 18–25 years wrote about three positive future life goals in an open-ended survey, before reporting their internalizing (anxiety and depression) symptoms, alcohol dependence severity and motivations for drinking: coping, conformity, enhancement and social. Future goal descriptions were experimenter-rated for detail specificity, and participant-self-rated for positivity, vividness, achievability, and importance. Effort in goal writing was indexed by time spent writing and total word count. Multiple regression analyses revealed that drinking to cope was uniquely associated with the production of less detailed goals, and lower self-rated positivity and vividness of goals (achievability and importance were also marginally lower), over and above internalizing symptoms, alcohol dependence severity, drinking for conformity, enhancement and social motives, age, and gender. However, drinking to cope was not uniquely associated with reduced effort in writing goals: time spent and word count. In sum, drinking to cope with negative affect is a unique characteristic predicting the generation of less detailed and bleaker (less positive and vivid) future goals, and this is not due to lower effort in reporting. Future goal generation may play a role in the aetiology of comorbidity of mental health and substance use problems, and therapeutic targeting of goal generation might benefit both conditions.
Abstract.
Herchenroeder L, Williams E, Wedell E, Sorid SD, Bakou AE, Bravo AJ, Hogarth L (2023). Interoceptive attention or merely distraction? an examination of the effects of brief breath counting training on stress-induced alcohol-seeking behavior. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(1), 140-147.
Buabang EK, Köster M, Hogarth L, Moors A (2023). Poor Reliability and Validity of Habit Effects in Substance Use and Novel Insights from a Goal-Directed Perspective.
Abstract:
Poor Reliability and Validity of Habit Effects in Substance Use and Novel Insights from a Goal-Directed Perspective
The habit theory is an influential explanation for problematic substance use. We review the main assumptions of the habit theory and emphasize concerns regarding the reliability and validity of the supporting experimental evidence. We also highlight the challenge for the habit theory to explain observational data regarding the complexity of substance use, specifically, the diversity of risk factors and intervention strategies. To address these issues, we elaborate and apply the goal-directed model of Moors et al. (2017) to explain substance use. Based on this application, we identify several factors that may contribute to substance use. We argue that this goal-directed model provides a more compelling synthesis of the experimental evidence and the observational data on substance use. In addition to providing a more nuanced understanding of substance use, we believe it also allows for a better explanation of its complexity and individual variations. The proposed shift in explanations for substance use from habit to goal-directed theory also has implications for intervention.
Abstract.
2022
Acuff SF, Pilatti A, Collins M, Hides L, Thingujam NS, Chai WJ, Yap WM, Shuai R, Hogarth L, Bravo AJ, et al (2022). Reinforcer pathology of internet-related behaviors among college students: Data from six countries.
Exp Clin Psychopharmacol,
30(5), 725-739.
Abstract:
Reinforcer pathology of internet-related behaviors among college students: Data from six countries.
Research has demonstrated that repeated engagement in low-effort behaviors that are associated with immediate reward, such as Internet use, can result in a pathological reinforcement process in which the behavior is increasingly selected over other activities due, in part, to a low availability of alternative activities and to a strong preference for immediate rather than delayed rewards (delay discounting). However, this reinforcer pathology model has not been generalized to other Internet-related behaviors, such as online gaming or smartphone use. Given the widespread availability of these technologies, it is also important to examine whether reinforcer pathology of Internet-related behaviors is culturally universal or culture-specific. The current study examines relations between behavioral economic constructs (Internet demand, delay discounting, and alternative reinforcement) and Internet-related addictive behaviors (harmful Internet use, smartphone use, online gaming, and Internet sexual behavior) in a cross-sectional sample of college students (N = 1,406) from six different countries (Argentina, Australia, India, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and the United States). Using structural equation modeling, Internet demand was associated with harmful Internet use, smartphone use, and online gaming; delay discounting was associated with harmful smartphone use; and alternative reinforcement was associated with harmful Internet and smartphone use. The models were partially invariant across countries. However, mean levels of behavioral economic variables differed across countries, country-level gross domestic product, person-level income, and sex at birth. Results support behavioral economic theory and highlight the importance of considering both individual and country-level sociocultural contextual factors in models for understanding harmful engagement with Internet-related behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Abstract.
Author URL.
Shuai R, Anker JJ, Bravo AJ, Kushner MG, Hogarth L (2022). Risk Pathways Contributing to the Alcohol Harm Paradox: Socioeconomic Deprivation Confers Susceptibility to Alcohol Dependence via Greater Exposure to Aversive Experience, Internalizing Symptoms and Drinking to Cope.
Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,
16Abstract:
Risk Pathways Contributing to the Alcohol Harm Paradox: Socioeconomic Deprivation Confers Susceptibility to Alcohol Dependence via Greater Exposure to Aversive Experience, Internalizing Symptoms and Drinking to Cope
Socioeconomic deprivation is associated with greater alcohol problems despite lower alcohol consumption, but the mechanisms underpinning this alcohol harm paradox remain obscure. Fragmented published evidence collectively supports a multistage causal risk pathway wherein socioeconomic deprivation increases the probability of exposure to aversive experience, which promotes internalizing symptoms (depression and anxiety), which promotes drinking alcohol to cope with negative affect, which in turn accelerates the transition from alcohol use to dependence. To evaluate this proposed risk pathway, 219 hazardous drinkers from an undergraduate population completed questionnaires assessing these constructs in a single, cross sectional, online survey. Partial correlation coefficients revealed that each variable showed the strongest unique association with the next variable in the proposed multistage model, when adjusting for the other variables. Bootstrapped serial mediation analysis revealed that the indirect pathway linking all the variables in the proposed serial order was significant, while all other permutations were non-significant. Network centrality analysis corroborated the serial order of this indirect path. Finally, risk ratios estimated by categorizing the variables suggested that socioeconomic deprivation increased the risk of aversive experience by 32%, which increased the risk of internalizing symptoms by 180%, which increased the risk of drinking to cope by 64%, which increased susceptibility to alcohol dependence by 59%. These preliminary findings need to be corroborated by future research, nevertheless, they call for prevention strategies founded on social justice and the minimization of aversive experience in socially deprived individuals to mitigate mental health problems, maladaptive coping and addiction.
Abstract.
2021
Smith NIJ, Gilmour S, Prescott-Mayling L, Hogarth L, Corrigan JD, Williams WH (2021). A pilot study of brain injury in police officers: a source of mental health problems?.
J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs,
28(1), 43-55.
Abstract:
A pilot study of brain injury in police officers: a source of mental health problems?
WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has been linked to poor outcomes in terms of mental health, specifically, PTSD, depression and alcohol abuse. A lack of research evidence exists relevant to exploring the presence and implications of TBI in the police in the UK and globally, despite the elevated risk of physical and emotional trauma specific to policing. WHAT DOES THE PAPER ADD TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: the rate of traumatic brain injury is highly prevalent in a small sample of police officers. Traumatic brain injury is a major source of post-concussion symptoms (physical, cognitive and emotional deficits) in police officers, which, in general, are associated with greater mental health difficulties and drinking alcohol to cope. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: Traditional mental health treatments should be supplemented with elements of concussion care to address any cognitive, emotional and physical issues due to head injury. Interventions should be made more accessible to those suffering from a mild brain injury. This can be done through regular reminders of appointments, pictograms and by providing a concrete follow-up. ABSTRACT: Introduction Police officers have a high risk of injury through assaults, road traffic incidents and attending domestic calls, with many officers developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a consequence. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common injury in populations involved in conflict and has been extensively linked to mental health difficulties. However, current research has not explored the frequency and sequelae of TBI in police populations, despite the elevated risk of physical and emotional trauma specific to policing. Aim to explore self-reported TBI, PTSD, post-concussion symptoms, depression and drinking to cope in a small sample of UK police, to determine the frequency of these conditions and their relationships. Method Measures of TBI, mental health, and drinking alcohol to cope were administered to 54 police officers from a Midshire Police Constabulary. Results Mild TBI with loss of consciousness was reported by 38.9% of the sample. TBI was associated with increased post-concussion symptoms (PCS). PCS were associated with greater severity of PTSD, depression and drinking to cope. Discussion Exploring TBI in the police could identify a major factor contributing towards ongoing mental health difficulties in a population where, based on previous research, the implications of TBI should not be overlooked, highlighting the need for further research in this area. Implications for Practice This research spans to identify the importance of routine assessment and increasing awareness within mental health services. Mental health treatments should be made amenable to a population with potential memory, planning and impulse control deficits. Further work in mental health services is needed to understand the level of ongoing issues that are due to post-concussion symptoms and those that are due to other mental health difficulties, such as PTSD, thereby educating patients on the association between TBI and emotional difficulties. A graduated return-to-work plan should be developed to enable a safe transition back to work, whilst managing any ongoing symptoms.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Hardy L, Bakou AE, Shuai R, Acuff SF, MacKillop J, Murphy CM, Murphy JG, Hogarth L (2021). Associations between the Brief Assessment of Alcohol Demand (BAAD) questionnaire and alcohol use disorder severity in UK samples of student and community drinkers. Addictive Behaviors, 113, 106724-106724.
Bakou AE, Shuai R, Hogarth L (2021). Brief Negative Affect Focused Functional Imagery Training Abolishes Stress-Induced Alcohol Choice in Hazardous Student Drinkers.
Journal of Addiction,
2021, 1-7.
Abstract:
Brief Negative Affect Focused Functional Imagery Training Abolishes Stress-Induced Alcohol Choice in Hazardous Student Drinkers
Introduction. Imagery-based stress management therapies are effective at reducing alcohol use. To explore the therapeutic mechanism, the current study tested whether brief functional imagery training linked to personal negative affect drinking triggers would attenuate sensitivity to noise stress-induced alcohol seeking behaviour in a laboratory model. Methods. Participants were UK-based hazardous student drinkers (N = 61, 80.3% women, aged 18–25) who reported drinking to cope with negative affect. Participants in the active intervention group (n = 31) were briefly trained to respond to personal negative drinking triggers by retrieving an adaptive strategy to mitigate negative affect, whereas participants in the control group (n = 30) received risk information about binge drinking at university. The relative value of alcohol was then measured by preference to view alcohol versus food pictures in two-alternative choice trials, before (baseline) and during noise stress induction. Results. There was a significant two-way interaction
.
.
.
. p
. <
. 04
.
.
.
. where the control group increased their alcohol picture choice from baseline to the noise stress test
.
.
.
. p
. <
. 001
.
.
.
. whereas the active intervention group did not
.
.
.
. p
. =
. 33
.
.
.
. and the control group chose alcohol more frequently than the active group in the stress test
.
.
.
. p
. =
. 03
.
.
.
. but not at baseline
.
.
.
. p
. =
. 16
.
.
.
. Conclusions. These findings indicate that imagery-based mood management can protect against the increase in the relative value of alcohol motivated by acute stress in hazardous negative affect drinkers, suggesting this mechanism could underpin the therapeutic effect of mood management on drinking outcomes.
Abstract.
Shuai R, Bakou AE, Andrade J, Hides L, Hogarth L (2021). Brief Online Negative Affect Focused Functional Imagery Training Improves 2-Week Drinking Outcomes in Hazardous Student Drinkers: a Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial.
International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,
29(3), 346-356.
Abstract:
Brief Online Negative Affect Focused Functional Imagery Training Improves 2-Week Drinking Outcomes in Hazardous Student Drinkers: a Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial
Abstract
. Background
. Negative affect plays an important role in motivating problematic alcohol use. Consequently, training imagery-based adaptive responses to negative affect could reduce problematic alcohol use. The current study tested whether personalised online functional imagery training (FIT) to utilise positive mental imagery in response to negative affect would improve drinking outcomes in hazardous negative affect drinking students.
.
. Method
. Participants were 52 hazardous student drinkers who drink to cope with negative affect. Participants in the active group (n = 24) were trained online over 2 weeks to respond to personalised negative drinking triggers by retrieving a personalised adaptive strategy they might use to mitigate negative affect, whereas participants in the control group (n = 28) received standard risk information about binge drinking at university. Measures of daily drinking quantity, drinking motives, self-efficacy and use of protective behavioural strategies were obtained at baseline and 2 weeks follow-up.
.
. Results
. There were three significant interactions between group and time in a per-protocol analysis: the active intervention group showed increased self-efficacy of control over negative affect drinking and control over alcohol consumption and decreased social drinking motives from baseline to 2-week follow-up, relative to the control intervention group. There were no effects on drinking frequency.
.
. Conclusion
. These findings provide initial evidence that online training to respond to negative affect drinking triggers by retrieving mental imagery of adaptive strategies can improve drinking-related outcomes in hazardous, student, negative affect drinkers. The findings support the utility of FIT interventions for substance use.
.
Abstract.
Mahlberg J, Seabrooke T, Weidemann G, Hogarth L, Mitchell CJ, Moustafa AA (2021). Human appetitive Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer: a goal-directed account.
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH-PSYCHOLOGISCHE FORSCHUNG,
85(2), 449-463.
Author URL.
Kent H, Williams WH, Hogarth L, Mewse A, Kent H (2021). Poor Parental Supervision is Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury and Reactive Aggression in Young Offenders.
Journal of Head Trauma RehabilitationAbstract:
Poor Parental Supervision is Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury and Reactive Aggression in Young Offenders.
Objective. To establish whether poor parental supervision is associated with head injury and
self-reported reactive aggression (i.e. aggression in response to perceived provocation or
threat) in adolescents in a young offender’s institute, by examining correlations between
these variables. Understanding this population is important as they are at a key pivotal age for
intervention to prevent life-long re-offending.
Method. Ninety-six male participants aged 16-18 were recruited from a UK Young
Offender’s Institute. Self-report measures of remembered parenting, reactive aggression, and
head injury history were administered during individual interviews.
Results. 74% of participants reported having experienced a lifetime TBI, and 46% of
participants reported experiencing at least one TBI leading to a loss of consciousness (LOC).
We found that poor parental supervision, length of LOC following TBI, and self-reported
reactive aggression, were all positively correlated.
Conclusions. Findings show that there are correlational relationships between poor parental
supervision, length of LOC following lifetime TBI, and higher levels of self-reported reactive
aggression. This suggests there may be pathways resulting from poor parental supervision
leading to both TBI with LOC, and reactive aggression. We advocate for future research with
longitudinal designs and larger samples to examine the nature of these interactions, and to
establish whether poor parental supervision is a prospective risk factor for more TBIs leading
to LOC, and reactive aggression. This is key to understanding whether parenting
interventions could help to reduce the disabling effects of TBI in adolescents, and help to
prevent contact with the law.
Abstract.
Rycroft N, Hogarth L, MacKillop J, Dawkins L (2021). Vapers exhibit similar subjective nicotine dependence but lower nicotine reinforcing value compared to smokers.
Addict Behav,
115Abstract:
Vapers exhibit similar subjective nicotine dependence but lower nicotine reinforcing value compared to smokers.
INTRODUCTION: E-cigarette use has increased rapidly over the last 10 years, mostly among smokers and ex-smokers. Although there may be some degree of dependency on nicotine via e-cigarette use, the nature of this dependency is poorly understood. The aim of this paper is to use tasks from behavioural economics to compare the value that smokers place on tobacco cigarettes to the value that vapers place on e-cigarettes. METHOD: Exclusive current smokers (n = 25) and vapers (n = 20) attended one session where they completed the Cigarette/e-cigarette Dependence Scale, the Cigarette/e-cigarette Purchasing Task (CPT) and the Concurrent Choice Task (CCT). The CPT requires participants to indicate how many puffs of their chosen product they would purchase at increasing price points. The CCT requires participants to choose between earning a money point or a point towards a cigarette/e-cigarette after being presented with a neutral, money or cigarette/e-cigarette cue. RESULTS: Overall scores on the self-report scales suggest a comparable level of dependency between smokers and vapers. The CPT revealed that vapers are more sensitive than smokers to escalating costs as consumption declined as costs increased. On the CCT, when primed with money, vapers showed a decrease in choosing e-cigarettes. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that, on behavioural economic tasks, tobacco cigarettes have a higher relative value than e-cigarettes. Vapers appear to place a lower limit on what they will spend to access e-cigarettes and more readily choose money over e-cigarette puffs when primed by money cues.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Bravo AJ, Prince MA, Pilatti A, Mezquita L, Keough MT, Hogarth L (2021). Young adult concurrent use and simultaneous use of alcohol and marijuana: a cross-national examination among college students in seven countries. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 14, 100373-100373.
2020
Hogarth L, Field M (2020). Relative expected value of drugs versus competing rewards underpins vulnerability to and recovery from addiction.
Behav Brain Res,
394Abstract:
Relative expected value of drugs versus competing rewards underpins vulnerability to and recovery from addiction.
Behavioural economic theories of addiction contend that greater expected value of drug relative to alternative non-drug rewards is the core mechanism underpinning vulnerability to and recovery from addiction. To evaluate this claim, we exhaustively review studies with human drug users that have measured concurrent choice between drugs vs. alternative rewards, and explored individual differences. These studies show that drug choice can be modulated by drug cues, drug devaluation, imposition of costs/punishment and negative mood induction. Regarding individual differences, dependence severity was reliably associated with overall drug preference, and self-reported drug use to cope with negative affect was reliably associated with greater sensitivity to mood induced increases in drug choice. By contrast, there were no reliable individual differences in sensitivity to the effect of drug cues, drug devaluation or punishment on drug choice. These findings provide insight into the mechanisms that underpin vulnerability to dependence: vulnerability is conferred by greater relative value ascribed to drugs, and relative drug value is further augmented by negative affective states in those who report drug use coping motives. However, dependence does not appear to be characterised by abnormal cue-reactivity, habit learning or compulsion. We then briefly review emerging literature which demonstrates that therapeutic interventions and recovery from addiction might be attributed to changes in the expected relative value of drug versus alternative rewards. Finally, we outline a speculative computational account of the distortions in decision-making that precede action selection in addiction, and we explain how this account provides a blueprint for future research on the determinants of drug choice, and mechanisms of treatment and recovery from addiction. We conclude that a unified economic decision-making account of addiction has great promise in reconciling diverse addiction theories, and neuropsychological evaluation of the underlying decision mechanisms is a fruitful area for future research and treatment.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Dyer M, Board AG, Hogarth L, Suddell S, Heron J, Hickman M, Munafo MR, Attwood AS (2020). State Anxiety and Alcohol Choice: Evidence from Experimental and Online Observational Studies.
Abstract:
State Anxiety and Alcohol Choice: Evidence from Experimental and Online Observational Studies
We conducted two experiments using the 7.5% carbon dioxide challenge (Studies 1 and 2) and an observational study (Study 3) to investigate the relationships between state anxiety and alcohol-related outcomes (primarily alcohol choice) (ns = 42, 60, 218, respectively). We also explored whether drinking to cope (DTC) motives moderated these relationships. In Study 1, experimentally-induced state anxiety increased alcohol choice (dz =. 65, p &lt;.001). This finding was replicated in Study 2, but the effect was weaker (ηp2 =. 056, p =. 076). Furthermore, DTC moderated the effect (ηp 2 =. 106, p =. 013). However, in Study 3 there was no clear evidence of an association between naturally-occurring state anxiety and alcohol choice (b = 0.05, p =. 654), or a moderating role of DTC (b = 6.66, p =. 311). Experimentally-induced, but not naturally-occurring, state anxiety increases alcohol choice, although state anxiety was lower in the non-manipulated sample.
Abstract.
2019
Seabrooke T, Wills AJ, Hogarth L, Mitchell CJ (2019). Automaticity and cognitive control: Effects of cognitive load on cue-controlled reward choice.
Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006),
72(6), 1507-1521.
Abstract:
Automaticity and cognitive control: Effects of cognitive load on cue-controlled reward choice
The extent to which human outcome-response (O-R) priming effects are automatic or under cognitive control is currently unclear. Two experiments tested the effect of cognitive load on O-R priming to shed further light on the debate. In Experiment 1, two instrumental responses earned beer and chocolate points in an instrumental training phase. Instrumental response choice was then tested in the presence of beer, chocolate, and neutral stimuli. On test, a Reversal instruction group was told that the stimuli signalled which response would not be rewarded. The transfer test was also conducted under either minimal (No Load) or considerable (Load) cognitive load. The Non-Reversal groups showed O-R priming effects, where the reward cues increased the instrumental responses that had previously produced those outcomes, relative to the neutral stimulus. This effect was observed even under cognitive load. The Reversal No Load group demonstrated a reversed effect, where response choice was biased towards the response that was most likely to be rewarded according to the instruction. Most importantly, response choice was at chance in the Reversal Load condition. In Experiment 2, cognitive load abolished the sensitivity to outcome devaluation that was otherwise seen when multiple outcomes and responses were cued on test. Collectively, the results demonstrate that complex O-R priming effects are sensitive to cognitive load, whereas the very simple, standard O-R priming effect is more robust.
Abstract.
Hogarth L (2019). Cue-elicited craving and human Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer. Addiction Research & Theory
Hogarth L, Hardy L, Bakou A, Mahlberg J, Weidemann G, Cashel S, Moustafa AA (2019). Negative Mood Induction Increases Choice of Heroin Versus Food Pictures in Opiate-Dependent Individuals: Correlation with Self-Medication Coping Motives and Subjective Reactivity.
FRONTIERS IN PSYCHIATRY,
10 Author URL.
Hogarth L (2019). Relationship between childhood abuse and substance misuse problems is mediated by substance use coping motives, in school attending South African adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence
2018
Hogarth L (2018). A Critical Review of Habit Theory of Drug Dependence.
Hogarth L (2018). A concurrent pictorial drug choice task marks multiple risk factors in treatment-engaged smokers and drinkers. Behavioural Pharmacology
Hogarth L (2018). Alcohol use disorder symptoms are associated with greater relative value ascribed to alcohol, but not greater discounting of costs imposed on alcohol. Psychopharmacology
Miele A, Thompson M, Jao NC, Kalhan R, Leone F, Hogarth L, Hitsman B, Schnoll R (2018). Cancer Patients Enrolled in a Smoking Cessation Clinical Trial: Characteristics and Correlates of Smoking Rate and Nicotine Dependence. Journal of addiction
Hogarth L (2018). Controlled and automatic learning processes in addiction.
Hardy L, Josephy K, McAndrew A, Hawksley P, Hartley L, Hogarth L (2018). Evaluation of the Peninsula Alcohol and Violence Programme (PAVP) with violent offenders.
Addiction Research & Theory,
0, 1-8.
Abstract:
Evaluation of the Peninsula Alcohol and Violence Programme (PAVP) with violent offenders
AbstractThere is clear experimental evidence for a causal link between alcohol misuse and violent behaviour. Treatments for alcohol misuse with offenders are therefore justified on the grounds that they may reduce violent behaviour and thus re-offending. The current paper tested whether a 10-session CBT intervention with offenders still in prison would produce improvements across three time points (pre, post and follow up) in self-reported alcohol expectancies, aggressiveness, impulsivity, and self-efficacy in managing alcohol use and violent behaviour. The programme focussed on educating participants on the relationship between alcohol use and violence, modifying unhelpful cognitions, and providing skills based training to manage potential triggers. Data from 49 offenders in prison were collected pre-intervention, post-intervention, and at three month follow up. Long term improvements (from pre- to post-intervention and follow up) were observed with respect to alcohol expectancies (in terms of sociability and liquid courage), impulsive responding to negative affect triggers, trait anger, and confidence in managing alcohol use and offending behaviour. These findings provide preliminary evidence for the efficacy of the CBT programme in reducing harmful alcohol use and associated violence. Limitations and recommendations for future evaluation of the intervention are discussed.
Abstract.
Hogarth L, Lam-Cassettari C, Pacitti H, Currah T, Mahlberg J, Hartley L, Moustafa A (2018). Intact goal-directed control in treatment-seeking drug users indexed by outcome-devaluation and Pavlovian to instrumental transfer: Critique of habit theory. European Journal of Neuroscience, 50(3), 2513-2525.
Pritchard TL, Weidemann G, Hogarth L (2018). Negative emotional appraisal selectively disrupts retrieval of expected outcome values required for goal-directed instrumental choice.
Cogn Emot,
32(4), 843-851.
Abstract:
Negative emotional appraisal selectively disrupts retrieval of expected outcome values required for goal-directed instrumental choice.
Stress induction reduces people's ability to modify their instrumental choices following changes in the value of outcomes, but the mechanisms underpinning this effect have not been specified because previous studies have lacked crucial control conditions. To address this, the current study had participants learn two instrumental responses for food and water, respectively, before water was devalued by specific satiety. Choice between these two responses was then measured in extinction, reacquisition and Pavlovian to instrumental transfer (PIT) tests. Concurrently during these tests, a negative emotional appraisal group evaluated aversive images (stress induction), whereas a control group evaluated neutral images, at the same time as choosing between the two instrumental responses. Negative emotional appraisal abolished the impact of water devaluation on instrumental choice in the extinction test, but did not affect instrumental choice in the reacquisition or PIT tests. These findings suggest that negative emotional appraisal selectively impaired participants' ability to retrieve the expected value of outcomes required to make goal-directed instrumental choices in the extinction test, and that this effect was not due to task disengagement, nullification of the devaluation treatment or impaired knowledge of response-outcome relationships.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Hogarth L (2018). Negative mood-induced alcohol-seeking is greater in young adults who report depression symptoms, drinking to cope, and subjective reactivity. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
2017
Mathew AR, Hogarth L, Leventhal AM, Cook JW, Hitsman B (2017). Cigarette smoking and depression comorbidity: systematic review and proposed theoretical model.
Addiction,
112(3), 401-412.
Abstract:
Cigarette smoking and depression comorbidity: systematic review and proposed theoretical model.
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Despite decades of research on co-occurring smoking and depression, cessation rates remain consistently lower for depressed smokers than for smokers in the general population, highlighting the need for theory-driven models of smoking and depression. This paper provides a systematic review with a particular focus upon psychological states that disproportionately motivate smoking in depression, and frame an incentive learning theory account of smoking-depression co-occurrence. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Scopus, PsychINFO and CINAHL to December 2014, which yielded 852 papers. Using pre-established eligibility criteria, we identified papers focused on clinical issues and motivational mechanisms underlying smoking in established, adult smokers (i.e. maintenance, quit attempts and cessation/relapse) with elevated symptoms of depression. Two reviewers determined independently whether papers met review criteria. We included 297 papers in qualitative synthesis. RESULTS: Our review identified three primary mechanisms that underlie persistent smoking among depressed smokers: low positive affect, high negative affect and cognitive impairment. We propose a novel application of incentive learning theory which posits that depressed smokers experience greater increases in the expected value of smoking in the face of these three motivational states, which promotes goal-directed choice of smoking behavior over alternative actions. CONCLUSIONS: the incentive learning theory accounts for current evidence on how depression primes smoking behavior and provides a unique framework for conceptualizing psychological mechanisms of smoking maintenance among depressed smokers. Treatment should focus upon correcting adverse internal states and beliefs about the high value of smoking in those states to improve cessation outcomes for depressed smokers.
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Author URL.
Hogarth L, Hardy L (2017). Depressive statements prime goal-directed alcohol-seeking in individuals who report drinking to cope with negative affect. Psychopharmacology, 235, 269-279.
Hardy L, Mitchell C, Seabrooke T, Hogarth L (2017). Drug cue reactivity involves hierarchical instrumental learning: evidence from a biconditional Pavlovian to instrumental transfer task.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
234(13), 1977-1984.
Abstract:
Drug cue reactivity involves hierarchical instrumental learning: evidence from a biconditional Pavlovian to instrumental transfer task.
RATIONALE: Drug cue reactivity plays a crucial role in addiction, yet the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. According to the binary associative account, drug stimuli retrieve an expectation of the drug outcome, which, in turn, elicits the associated drug-seeking response (S-O-R). By contrast, according to the hierarchical account, drug stimuli retrieve an expectation that the contingency between the drug-seeking response and the drug outcome is currently more effective, promoting performance of the drug-seeking response (S:R-O). METHODS: the current study discriminated between these two accounts using a biconditional Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) task with 128 alcohol drinkers. A biconditional discrimination was first trained in which two responses produced alcohol and food outcomes, respectively, and these response-outcome contingencies were reversed across two discriminative stimuli (SDs). In the PIT test, alcohol and food cues were compounded with the two SDs to examine their impact on percent alcohol choice in extinction. RESULTS: it was found that alcohol and food cues selectively primed choice of the response that earned that outcome in each SD (p
Abstract.
Author URL.
Seabrooke T, Le Pelley ME, Hogarth L, Mitchell CJ (2017). Evidence of a goal-directed process in human Pavlovian-instrumental transfer.
J Exp Psychol Anim Learn Cogn,
43(4), 377-387.
Abstract:
Evidence of a goal-directed process in human Pavlovian-instrumental transfer.
Cues that signal rewards can motivate reward-seeking behaviors, even for outcomes that are not currently desired. Three experiments examined this phenomenon, using an outcome-selective Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) design and an outcome devaluation procedure. In Experiment 1, participants learned to perform one response to earn crisps points and another response to earn popcorn points. One outcome was then devalued by adulterating it to make it taste unpleasant. On test, overall response choice was biased toward the outcome that had not been devalued, indicating goal-directed control. Stimuli that signaled crisps and popcorn also biased instrumental response choice toward their respective outcomes (a PIT effect). Most importantly, the strength of this bias was not influenced by the devaluation manipulation. In contrast, Experiment 2 demonstrated that when stimuli signaled equal probability of the two outcomes, cue-elicited response choice was sensitive to the devaluation manipulation. Experiment 3 confirmed this conclusion by demonstrating a selective avoidance of the cued, devalued outcome. Together, these data support a goal-directed model of PIT in which expected outcome probability and value make independent contributions to response choice. (PsycINFO Database Record
Abstract.
Author URL.
Myers CE, Rego J, Haber P, Morley K, Beck KD, Hogarth L, Moustafa AA (2017). Learning and generalization from reward and punishment in opioid addiction.
Behav Brain Res,
317, 122-131.
Abstract:
Learning and generalization from reward and punishment in opioid addiction.
This study adapts a widely-used acquired equivalence paradigm to investigate how opioid-addicted individuals learn from positive and negative feedback, and how they generalize this learning. The opioid-addicted group consisted of 33 participants with a history of heroin dependency currently in a methadone maintenance program; the control group consisted of 32 healthy participants without a history of drug addiction. All participants performed a novel variant of the acquired equivalence task, where they learned to map some stimuli to correct outcomes in order to obtain reward, and to map other stimuli to correct outcomes in order to avoid punishment; some stimuli were implicitly "equivalent" in the sense of being paired with the same outcome. On the initial training phase, both groups performed similarly on learning to obtain reward, but as memory load grew, the control group outperformed the addicted group on learning to avoid punishment. On a subsequent testing phase, the addicted and control groups performed similarly on retention trials involving previously-trained stimulus-outcome pairs, as well as on generalization trials to assess acquired equivalence. Since prior work with acquired equivalence tasks has associated stimulus-outcome learning with the nigrostriatal dopamine system, and generalization with the hippocampal region, the current results are consistent with basal ganglia dysfunction in the opioid-addicted patients. Further, a selective deficit in learning from punishment could contribute to processes by which addicted individuals continue to pursue drug use even at the cost of negative consequences such as loss of income and the opportunity to engage in other life activities.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Mahlberg J, Haber P, Morley K, Weidemann G, Hogarth L, Beck KD, Myers CE, Moustafa AA (2017). Reward and punishment-based compound cue learning and generalization in opiate dependency.
Exp Brain Res,
235(10), 3153-3162.
Abstract:
Reward and punishment-based compound cue learning and generalization in opiate dependency.
Substance dependence is thought to be mediated by abnormalities in cognitive abilities, but how this impacts decision-making remains unclear. This study aimed to test whether people who are opiate dependent differed from never-dependent controls in learning from reward and punishment or in the generalization of learning to novel conditions. Participants with opiate dependency consisted of 21 people who were outpatients in a methadone maintenance program; the control group consisted of 21 healthy participants with no histories of substance abuse. Subjects completed a computer-based task that involved two phases: the training phase involved participants being presented with compound stimulus (a shape and color) in each trial, with the goal of learning which compounds to 'pick' for rewards or 'skip' to avoid punishment. The test phase involved a transfer test, where stimuli from the first phase were combined together to form novel compounds without feedback. The control group demonstrated fewer errors compared to opiate-dependent individuals during the training phase. In the test phase, controls used prior knowledge of both shapes and colors in responding; however, opiate-dependent individuals used shapes but did not use their knowledge of color to modulate responding. When performance during training was equated in the groups using a learning threshold, this difference between groups on the generalization test remained. A deficit in learning generalization might be indicative of group differences in learning strategies in operation during training; however, future work is necessary to uncover the specific neural substrates in action during transfer tasks, and to determine the effects of acute methadone dosage on decision-making.
Abstract.
Author URL.
2016
Mathew AR, Hogarth L, Leventhal AM, Cook JW, Hitsman B (2016). Cigarette smoking and depression comorbidity: systematic review & proposed theoretical model. Addiction
Sheynin J, Moustafa AA, Beck KD, Servatius RJ, Casbolt PA, Haber P, Elsayed M, Hogarth L, Myers CE (2016). Exaggerated acquisition and resistance to extinction of avoidance behavior in treated heroin-dependent men.
J Clin Psychiatry,
77(3), 386-394.
Abstract:
Exaggerated acquisition and resistance to extinction of avoidance behavior in treated heroin-dependent men.
OBJECTIVE: Addiction is often conceptualized as a behavioral strategy for avoiding negative experiences. In rodents, opioid intake has been associated with abnormal acquisition and extinction of avoidance behavior. Here, we tested the hypothesis that these findings would generalize to human opioid-dependent subjects. METHOD: Adults meeting DSM-IV criteria for heroin dependence and treated with opioid medication (n = 27) and healthy controls (n = 26) were recruited between March 2013 and October 2013 and given a computer-based task to assess avoidance behavior. For this task, subjects controlled a spaceship and could either gain points by shooting an enemy spaceship or hide in safe areas to avoid on-screen aversive events. Hiding duration during different periods of the task was used to measure avoidance behavior. RESULTS: While groups did not differ on escape responding (hiding) during the aversive event, heroin-dependent men (but not women) made more avoidance responses during a warning signal that predicted the aversive event (analysis of variance, sex × group interaction, P =. 007). Heroin-dependent men were also slower to extinguish the avoidance response when the aversive event no longer followed the warning signal (P =. 011). This behavioral pattern resulted in reduced opportunity to obtain reward without reducing risk of punishment. Results suggest that, in male patients, differences in avoidance behavior cannot be easily explained by impaired task performance or by exaggerated motor activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence for abnormal acquisition and extinction of avoidance behavior in opioid-dependent patients. Interestingly, data suggest that abnormal avoidance is demonstrated only by male patients. Findings shed light on cognitive and behavioral manifestations of opioid addiction and may facilitate development of therapeutic approaches to help affected individuals.
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Author URL.
Myers CE, Sheynin J, Balsdon T, Luzardo A, Beck KD, Hogarth L, Haber P, Moustafa AA (2016). Probabilistic reward- and punishment-based learning in opioid addiction: Experimental and computational data.
Behav Brain Res,
296, 240-248.
Abstract:
Probabilistic reward- and punishment-based learning in opioid addiction: Experimental and computational data.
Addiction is the continuation of a habit in spite of negative consequences. A vast literature gives evidence that this poor decision-making behavior in individuals addicted to drugs also generalizes to laboratory decision making tasks, suggesting that the impairment in decision-making is not limited to decisions about taking drugs. In the current experiment, opioid-addicted individuals and matched controls with no history of illicit drug use were administered a probabilistic classification task that embeds both reward-based and punishment-based learning trials, and a computational model of decision making was applied to understand the mechanisms describing individuals' performance on the task. Although behavioral results showed that opioid-addicted individuals performed as well as controls on both reward- and punishment-based learning, the modeling results suggested subtle differences in how decisions were made between the two groups. Specifically, the opioid-addicted group showed decreased tendency to repeat prior responses, meaning that they were more likely to "chase reward" when expectancies were violated, whereas controls were more likely to stick with a previously-successful response rule, despite occasional expectancy violations. This tendency to chase short-term reward, potentially at the expense of developing rules that maximize reward over the long term, may be a contributing factor to opioid addiction. Further work is indicated to better understand whether this tendency arises as a result of brain changes in the wake of continued opioid use/abuse, or might be a pre-existing factor that may contribute to risk for addiction.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Seabrooke T, Hogarth L, Mitchell CJ (2016). The propositional basis of cue-controlled reward seeking.
Q J Exp Psychol (Hove),
69(12), 2452-2470.
Abstract:
The propositional basis of cue-controlled reward seeking.
Two experiments examined the role of propositional and automatic (ideomotor) processes in cue-elicited responding for rewarding outcomes (beer and chocolate). In a training phase, participants earned either chocolate or beer points by making one of two button-press responses. Rewards were indicated by the presentation of chocolate and beer pictures. On test, each trial began with a picture of beer or chocolate, or a blank screen, and choice of the beer versus chocolate response was assessed in the presence of these three pictures. Participants tended to choose the beer and chocolate response in the presence of the beer and chocolate pictures, respectively. In Experiment 1, instructions signalling that the pictures did not indicate which response would be rewarded significantly reduced the priming effect. In Experiment 2, instructions indicating that the pictures signified which response would not be rewarded resulted in a reversed priming effect. Finally, in both experiments, the priming effect correlated with self-reported beliefs that the cues signalled which response was more likely to be reinforced. These results suggest that cue-elicited response selection is mediated by a propositional belief regarding the efficacy of the response-outcome relationship, rather than an automatic ideomotor mechanism.
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Author URL.
Field M, Werthmann J, Franken I, Hofmann W, Hogarth L, Roefs A (2016). The role of attentional bias in obesity and addiction.
Health Psychol,
35(8), 767-780.
Abstract:
The role of attentional bias in obesity and addiction.
OBJECTIVES: the purpose of this article is to critically evaluate the following claims derived from contemporary theoretical models of attentional bias (AB) for food- and drug-related stimuli: (a) AB is a characteristic feature of obesity and addiction, (b) AB predicts future behavior, (c) AB exerts a causal influence on consummatory behavior, and (d) AB reflects appetitive motivational processes. METHOD: a focused discussion of the relevant literature is presented. RESULTS: the available evidence reveals inconsistencies with the aforementioned claims. Specifically, AB is not consistently associated with individual differences in body weight or drug use, AB does not consistently predict or influence distal consummatory behavior, and AB may be influenced by both appetitive and aversive motivational processes. These insights are synthesized into a theoretical account that claims that AB for food- and drug-related stimuli arises from momentary changes in evaluations of those stimuli that can be either positive (when the incentive value of the food or drug is high), negative (when individuals have a goal to change their behavior, and those stimuli are perceived as aversive), or both (when individuals experience motivational conflict, or ambivalence). CONCLUSIONS: the proposed theoretical synthesis may account for the contributions of appetitive and aversive motivational processes involved in self-regulatory conflicts to AB, and it yields testable predictions about the conditions under which AB should predict and have a causal influence on future consummatory behavior. This has implications for the prediction and modification of unhealthy behaviors and associated disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record
Abstract.
Author URL.
2015
Hogarth L, Troisi JR (2015). A hierarchical instrumental decision theory of nicotine dependence. In (Ed)
, 165-191.
Abstract:
A hierarchical instrumental decision theory of nicotine dependence.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Panlilio LV, Hogarth L, Shoaib M (2015). Concurrent access to nicotine and sucrose in rats.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
232(8), 1451-1460.
Abstract:
Concurrent access to nicotine and sucrose in rats.
BACKGROUND: Animal models that allow concurrent access to drug and nondrug reinforcers provide unique insight into the etiology, maintenance, and treatment of drug use. OBJECTIVES: We sought to develop and utilize a concurrent access procedure with nicotine and sucrose in rats. METHODS: Pressing one lever delivered intravenous nicotine, and pressing another lever delivered sucrose pellets, with both reinforcers freely available throughout daily sessions. RESULTS: Rats that had been pretrained with nicotine on some days and sucrose on other days responded on both levers when subsequently given concurrent access, but almost all responded at substantially higher rates on the sucrose lever. In contrast, rats pretrained exclusively with nicotine before being given concurrent access showed individual differences, with about half responding more on the nicotine lever. Treatment with the nicotinic receptor partial agonist varenicline selectively decreased nicotine self-administration. Food restriction and removal of the sucrose lever both increased nicotine self-administration. CONCLUSIONS: the finding that rats continue to take nicotine when sucrose is concurrently available-and in many cases take it more frequently than sucrose-demonstrates that nicotine self-administration does not only occur in the absence of alternative reinforcement options. As a model of human nicotine use, concurrent access is more naturalistic and has higher face validity than procedures in which only one reinforcer is available or choosing one reinforcer precludes access to other reinforcers. As such, this procedure could be useful for evaluating therapeutic agents and improving our understanding of environmental conditions that promote or discourage nicotine use.
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Author URL.
Maynard OM, Leonards U, Attwood AS, Bauld L, Hogarth L, Munafò MR (2015). Effects of first exposure to plain cigarette packaging on smoking behaviour and attitudes: a randomised controlled study.
BMC Public Health,
15(1).
Abstract:
Effects of first exposure to plain cigarette packaging on smoking behaviour and attitudes: a randomised controlled study
Background: Plain packaging requires tobacco products to be sold in packs with a standard shape, method of opening and colour, leaving the brand name in a standard font and location. We ran a randomised controlled trial to investigate the impact of plain packaging on smoking behaviour and attitudes. Methods: in a parallel group randomised trial design, 128 daily smokers smoked cigarettes from their usual UK brand, or a plain Australian brand that was closely matched to their usual UK brand for 24 hours. Primary outcomes were number of cigarettes smoked and volume of smoke inhaled per cigarette. Secondary outcomes were self-reported ratings of motivation to quit, cigarette taste, experience of using the pack, experience of smoking, attributes of the pack, perceptions of the health warning, changes in smoking behaviour, and views on plain packaging. Results: There was no evidence that pack type had an effect on either of the primary measures (ps > 0.279). However, smokers using plain cigarette packs rated the experience of using the pack more negatively (-0.52, 95% CI -0.82 to -0.22, p = 0.001), rated the pack attributes more negatively (-1.59, 95% CI -1.80 to -1.39, p < 0.001), and rated the health warning as more impactful (+0.51, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.78, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Plain cigarette packs reduce ratings of the experience of using the cigarette pack, and ratings of the pack attributes, and increase the self-perceived impact of the health warning, but do not change smoking behaviour, at least in the short term. Trial registration: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN52982308. Registered 27 June 2013.
Abstract.
Hogarth L, He Z, Chase HW, Wills AJ, Troisi J, Leventhal AM, Mathew AR, Hitsman B (2015). Negative mood reverses devaluation of goal-directed drug-seeking favouring an incentive learning account of drug dependence.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
232(17), 3235-3247.
Abstract:
Negative mood reverses devaluation of goal-directed drug-seeking favouring an incentive learning account of drug dependence.
BACKGROUND: Two theories explain how negative mood primes smoking behaviour. The stimulus-response (S-R) account argues that in the negative mood state, smoking is experienced as more reinforcing, establishing a direct (automatic) association between the negative mood state and smoking behaviour. By contrast, the incentive learning account argues that in the negative mood state smoking is expected to be more reinforcing, which integrates with instrumental knowledge of the response required to produce that outcome. OBJECTIVES: One differential prediction is that whereas the incentive learning account anticipates that negative mood induction could augment a novel tobacco-seeking response in an extinction test, the S-R account could not explain this effect because the extinction test prevents S-R learning by omitting experience of the reinforcer. METHODS: to test this, overnight-deprived daily smokers (n = 44) acquired two instrumental responses for tobacco and chocolate points, respectively, before smoking to satiety. Half then received negative mood induction to raise the expected value of tobacco, opposing satiety, whilst the remainder received positive mood induction. Finally, a choice between tobacco and chocolate was measured in extinction to test whether negative mood could augment tobacco choice, opposing satiety, in the absence of direct experience of tobacco reinforcement. RESULTS: Negative mood induction not only abolished the devaluation of tobacco choice, but participants with a significant increase in negative mood increased their tobacco choice in extinction, despite satiety. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that negative mood augments drug-seeking by raising the expected value of the drug through incentive learning, rather than through automatic S-R control.
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Author URL.
Hogarth L, Maynard OM, Munafò MR (2015). Plain cigarette packs do not exert Pavlovian to instrumental transfer of control over tobacco-seeking.
Addiction,
110(1), 174-182.
Abstract:
Plain cigarette packs do not exert Pavlovian to instrumental transfer of control over tobacco-seeking.
AIMS: to gain insight into the potential impact of plain tobacco packaging policy, two experiments were undertaken to test whether 'prototype' plain compared with branded UK cigarette pack stimuli would differentially elicit instrumental tobacco-seeking in a nominal Pavlovian to instrumental transfer (PIT) procedure. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Two experiments were undertaken at the University of Bristol UK, with a convenience sample of adult smokers (experiment 1, n = 23, experiment 2, n = 121). MEASUREMENT: in both experiments, smokers were trained on a concurrent choice procedure in which two responses earned points for cigarettes and chocolate, respectively, before images of branded and plain packs were tested for capacity to elicit the tobacco-seeking response in extinction. The primary outcome was percentage choice of the tobacco- over the chocolate-seeking response in plain pack, branded pack and no-stimulus conditions. FINDINGS: Both experiments found that branded packs primed a greater percentage of tobacco-seeking (overall mean = 62%) than plain packs (overall mean = 53%) and the no-stimulus condition (overall mean = 52%; Ps ≤ 0.01, Å‹p (2) s ≥ 0.16), and that there was no difference in percentage tobacco-seeking between plain packs and the no-stimulus condition (Ps ≥ 0.17, Å‹p (2) s ≤ 0.04). Plain tobacco packs showed an overall 9% reduction in the priming of a tobacco choice response compared to branded tobacco packs. CONCLUSIONS: Plain packaging may reduce smoking in current smokers by degrading cue-elicited tobacco-seeking.
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Author URL.
2014
Martinovic J, Jones A, Christiansen P, Rose AK, Hogarth L, Field M (2014). Electrophysiological responses to alcohol cues are not associated with Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer in social drinkers.
PLoS One,
9(4).
Abstract:
Electrophysiological responses to alcohol cues are not associated with Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer in social drinkers.
Pavlovian to Instrumental Transfer (PIT) refers to the behavioral phenomenon of increased instrumental responding for a reinforcer when in the presence of Pavlovian conditioned stimuli that were separately paired with that reinforcer. PIT effects may play an important role in substance use disorders, but little is known about the brain mechanisms that underlie these effects in alcohol consumers. We report behavioral and electroencephalographic (EEG) data from a group of social drinkers (n = 31) who performed a PIT task in which they chose between two instrumental responses in pursuit of beer and chocolate reinforcers while their EEG reactivity to beer, chocolate and neutral pictorial cues was recorded. We examined two markers of the motivational salience of the pictures: the P300 and slow wave event-related potentials (ERPs). Results demonstrated a behavioral PIT effect: responding for beer was increased when a beer picture was presented. Analyses of ERP amplitudes demonstrated significantly larger slow potentials evoked by beer cues at various electrode clusters. Contrary to hypotheses, there were no significant correlations between behavioral PIT effects, electrophysiological reactivity to the cues, and individual differences in drinking behaviour. Our findings are the first to demonstrate a PIT effect for beer, accompanied by increased slow potentials in response to beer cues, in social drinkers. The lack of relationship between behavioral and EEG measures, and between these measures and individual differences in drinking behaviour may be attributed to methodological features of the PIT task and to characteristics of our sample.
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Author URL.
Hogarth L, Retzler C, Munafò MR, Tran DMD, Troisi JR, Rose AK, Jones A, Field M (2014). Extinction of cue-evoked drug-seeking relies on degrading hierarchical instrumental expectancies.
Behav Res Ther,
59(100), 61-70.
Abstract:
Extinction of cue-evoked drug-seeking relies on degrading hierarchical instrumental expectancies.
There has long been need for a behavioural intervention that attenuates cue-evoked drug-seeking, but the optimal method remains obscure. To address this, we report three approaches to extinguish cue-evoked drug-seeking measured in a Pavlovian to instrumental transfer design, in non-treatment seeking adult smokers and alcohol drinkers. The results showed that the ability of a drug stimulus to transfer control over a separately trained drug-seeking response was not affected by the stimulus undergoing Pavlovian extinction training in experiment 1, but was abolished by the stimulus undergoing discriminative extinction training in experiment 2, and was abolished by explicit verbal instructions stating that the stimulus did not signal a more effective response-drug contingency in experiment 3. These data suggest that cue-evoked drug-seeking is mediated by a propositional hierarchical instrumental expectancy that the drug-seeking response is more likely to be rewarded in that stimulus. Methods which degraded this hierarchical expectancy were effective in the laboratory, and so may have therapeutic potential.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Maynard OM, Leonards U, Attwood AS, Bauld L, Hogarth L, Munafò MR (2014). Plain packaging of cigarettes and smoking behavior: study protocol for a randomized controlled study.
Trials,
15Abstract:
Plain packaging of cigarettes and smoking behavior: study protocol for a randomized controlled study.
BACKGROUND: Previous research on the effects of plain packaging has largely relied on self-report measures. Here we describe the protocol of a randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of the plain packaging of cigarettes on smoking behavior in a real-world setting. METHODS/DESIGN: in a parallel group randomization design, 128 daily cigarette smokers (50% male, 50% female) will attend an initial screening session and be assigned plain or branded packs of cigarettes to smoke for a full day. Plain packs will be those currently used in Australia where plain packaging has been introduced, while branded packs will be those currently used in the United Kingdom. Our primary study outcomes will be smoking behavior (self-reported number of cigarettes smoked and volume of smoke inhaled per cigarette as measured using a smoking topography device). Secondary outcomes measured pre- and post-intervention will be smoking urges, motivation to quit smoking, and perceived taste of the cigarettes. Secondary outcomes measured post-intervention only will be experience of smoking from the cigarette pack, overall experience of smoking, attributes of the cigarette pack, perceptions of the on-packet health warnings, behavior changes, views on plain packaging, and the rewarding value of smoking. Sex differences will be explored for all analyses. DISCUSSION: This study is novel in its approach to assessing the impact of plain packaging on actual smoking behavior. This research will help inform policymakers about the effectiveness of plain packaging as a tobacco control measure. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN52982308 (registered 27 June 2013).
Abstract.
Author URL.
2013
Hogarth L, Balleine BW, Corbit LH, Killcross S (2013). Associative learning mechanisms underpinning the transition from recreational drug use to addiction.
Ann N Y Acad Sci,
1282, 12-24.
Abstract:
Associative learning mechanisms underpinning the transition from recreational drug use to addiction.
Learning theory proposes that drug seeking is a synthesis of multiple controllers. Whereas goal-directed drug seeking is determined by the anticipated incentive value of the drug, habitual drug seeking is elicited by stimuli that have formed a direct association with the response. Moreover, drug-paired stimuli can transfer control over separately trained drug seeking responses by retrieving an expectation of the drug's identity (specific transfer) or incentive value (general transfer). This review covers outcome devaluation and transfer of stimulus-control procedures in humans and animals, which isolate the differential governance of drug seeking by these four controllers following various degrees of contingent and noncontingent drug exposure. The neural mechanisms underpinning these four controllers are also reviewed. These studies suggest that although initial drug seeking is goal-directed, chronic drug exposure confers a progressive loss of control over action selection by specific outcome representations (impaired outcome devaluation and specific transfer), and a concomitant increase in control over action selection by antecedent stimuli (enhanced habit and general transfer). The prefrontal cortex and mediodorsal thalamus may play a role in this drug-induced transition to behavioral autonomy.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Stillwell DJ, Tunney RJ (2013). BIS impulsivity and acute nicotine exposure are associated with discounting global consequences in the Harvard game.
Hum Psychopharmacol,
28(1), 72-79.
Abstract:
BIS impulsivity and acute nicotine exposure are associated with discounting global consequences in the Harvard game.
OBJECTIVE: the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS) provides a transdiagnostic marker for a number of psychiatric conditions and drug abuse, but the precise psychological trait(s) tapped by this questionnaire remain obscure. METHOD: to address this, 51 smokers completed in counterbalanced order the BIS, a delay discounting task and a Harvard game that measured choice between a response that yielded a high immediate monetary payoff but decreased opportunity to earn money overall (local choice) versus a response that yielded a lower immediate payoff but afforded a greater opportunity to earn overall (global choice). RESULTS: Individual level of BIS impulsivity and self-elected smoking prior to the study were independently associated with increased preference for the local over the global choice in the Harvard game, but not delay discounting. CONCLUSIONS: BIS impulsivity and acute nicotine exposure reflect a bias in the governance of choice by immediate reward contingencies over global consequences, consistent with contemporary dual-process instrumental learning theories.
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Author URL.
Hitsman B, Hogarth L, Tseng L-J, Teige JC, Shadel WG, DiBenedetti DB, Danto S, Lee TC, Price LH, Niaura R, et al (2013). Dissociable effect of acute varenicline on tonic versus cue-provoked craving in non-treatment-motivated heavy smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 130, 135-141.
Chase HW, Mackillop J, Hogarth L (2013). Isolating behavioural economic indices of demand in relation to nicotine dependence.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
226(2), 371-380.
Abstract:
Isolating behavioural economic indices of demand in relation to nicotine dependence.
RATIONALE: Characterisation of drug dependence using principles from behavioural economics has provided a more detailed understanding of the disorder. Although questionnaires assessing economic demand for cigarettes have extended these principles to nicotine addiction, aspects of the reliability and selectivity of these questionnaires remain uncertain. OBJECTIVE: Across two experiments, we attempted to reproduce significant associations of the cigarette purchase task with nicotine dependence in a young adult population of smokers and contrasted this measure with a novel chocolate purchase task. We also examined the association between these measures and performance on a preference task, measuring preference for cigarettes and chocolate. METHODS: Questionnaire measures were used within a university setting. RESULTS: in experiment 1, we observed associations between nicotine dependence and measures of behavioural economic demand for cigarettes, particularly O (max). In experiment 2, we replicated these findings again and extended them to show that similar correlations between nicotine dependence and demand for chocolate were not observed. Moreover, the indices of demand and choices on a concurrent choice cigarette task were moderately associated with each other and independently associated with nicotine dependence. CONCLUSIONS: the two experiments clearly supported previous findings regarding the association between nicotine dependence and economic demand for cigarettes. We extend these observations by showing that the generalisation of economic demand across different commodities is relatively weak, but that generalisation across different procedures is strong. Our results therefore support behavioural economic models of nicotine addiction which emphasise a robust proximal role for the incentive value of cigarettes.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Field M, Rose AK (2013). Phasic transition from goal-directed to habitual control over drug-seeking produced by conflicting reinforcer expectancy. Addiction Biology, 18, 88-97.
Rose AK, Brown K, Field M, Hogarth L (2013). The contributions of value-based decision-making and attentional bias to alcohol-seeking following devaluation.
Addiction,
108(7), 1241-1249.
Abstract:
The contributions of value-based decision-making and attentional bias to alcohol-seeking following devaluation.
AIMS: to investigate the mediating role of attentional bias for alcohol cues on alcohol-seeking following devaluation of alcohol. DESIGN: Between subject. SETTING: Eye-tracking laboratory at the University of Liverpool. PARTICIPANTS: Student social drinkers (n = 64). MEASUREMENTS: an operant choice task in which participants chose between simultaneously presented alcohol and non-alcohol drink rewards, while attentional bias for alcohol and non-alcohol drink cues was inferred from eye movements. Participants then consumed 30 mL of an alcoholic beverage, which was either presented alone (no devaluation: n = 32) or had been adulterated to taste unpleasant (devaluation: n = 32). Choice and attentional bias for the alcohol and non-alcohol drink pictures were then measured again. FINDINGS: Alcohol devaluation reduced behavioural choice for alcohol (F = 32.64, P < 0.001) and attentional bias for the alcohol pictures indexed by dwell time (F = 22.68, P < 0.001), initial fixation (F = 7.08, P = 0.01) and final fixation (F = 22.44, P < 0.001). Mediation analysis revealed that attentional bias partially mediated the effect of devaluation on alcohol choice; however, the proportion of the variance accounted for by attentional bias is low to moderate (~30%). CONCLUSIONS: Among student social drinkers, attentional bias is only a partial mediator of alcohol choice following devaluation of alcohol. Value-based decision-making may be a more important determinant of drinking behaviour among student social drinkers than attentional bias.
Abstract.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Chase HW (2013). Vulnerabilities underlying human drug dependence: Goal valuation versus habit learning. In (Ed) , 75-101.
2012
Rose AK, Hogarth L, Brown K (2012). ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES AND THE ABILITY OF ALCOHOL CUES TO TRIGGER HABIT-LIKE ALCOHOL-SEEKING BEHAVIOUR.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Attwood AS, Bate HA, Munafò MR (2012). Acute alcohol impairs human goal-directed action.
Biol Psychol,
90(2), 154-160.
Abstract:
Acute alcohol impairs human goal-directed action.
There are two forms of motivated behaviour. Goal-directed action is mediated by knowledge of the consequences whereas habitual action is elicited directly by stimuli associated with the action. Alcohol may impair goal-directed control, favouring habit. To evaluate this proposal, participants were administered with 0.4 g/kg of alcohol or placebo before acquiring separate instrumental responses for chocolate and water points. Chocolate was then fed to satiety to devalue this outcome before choice between the two responses was tested in extinction. Any reduction in chocolate choice must be mediated by knowledge of the current incentive value of this outcome, i.e. must be goal-directed. Alcohol attenuated the devaluation effect on choice in extinction, but had no effect on reacquisition performance, the hedonic appraisal of rewards or acquisition of the instrumental contingencies. Acute alcohol impaired goal-directed control of action selection, favouring habit, which may mediate alcohol effects on under-controlled behaviour more broadly.
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Author URL.
Hogarth L, Chase HW (2012). Evaluating psychological markers for human nicotine dependence: tobacco choice, extinction, and Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer.
Exp Clin Psychopharmacol,
20(3), 213-224.
Abstract:
Evaluating psychological markers for human nicotine dependence: tobacco choice, extinction, and Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer.
Individual differences in drug dependence may be mediated by several abnormalities in associative learning, including perseveration of drug-seeking following contingency change, greater control over drug-seeking by Pavlovian stimuli, or greater sensitivity to drug reinforcement establishing higher rates of drug-seeking. To evaluate these three candidate markers for nicotine dependence, Experiment 1 contrasted daily (N = 22) and nondaily smoker groups (N = 22) on a novel instrumental learning task, where one S+ was first trained as a predictor of tobacco reward before being extinguished. Experiment 2 compared daily (N = 18) and nondaily smoker groups (N = 18) on a concurrent-choice task for tobacco and chocolate reward before an extinction test in which the tobacco response was extinguished, followed by a Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer test, wherein the impact of tobacco and chocolate cues on concurrent choice was measured (gender was balanced within each smoker group). The results showed no group difference in sensitivity to extinction of either the stimulus-drug or response-drug contingency in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively, nor did groups show a difference in Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer of control over tobacco choice. By contrast, nicotine-dependence status was marked by a higher frequency of tobacco choice in the concurrent-choice procedure, and this choice preference was associated with subjective craving (gender did not affect any behavioral measure). These results favor the view that nicotine dependence in this sample is not determined by individual predilection for perseveration or stimulus-control over drug-seeking, but by greater sensitivity to reinforcement of instrumental drug choice. Value-based decision theories of dependence are discussed.
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Hogarth L, Rose AK (2012). GOAL-DIRECTED CONTROL OVER ACTION SELECTION IN HUMANS IS IMPAIRED BY ACUTE ALCOHOL ADMINISTRATION AND ALCOHOL CUES.
Author URL.
Hogarth L (2012). Goal-directed and transfer-cue-elicited drug-seeking are dissociated by pharmacotherapy: evidence for independent additive controllers.
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process,
38(3), 266-278.
Abstract:
Goal-directed and transfer-cue-elicited drug-seeking are dissociated by pharmacotherapy: evidence for independent additive controllers.
According to contemporary learning theory, drug-seeking behavior reflects the summation of 2 dissociable controllers. Whereas goal-directed drug-seeking is determined by the expected current incentive value of the drug, stimulus-elicited drug-seeking is determined by the expected probability of the drug independently of its current incentive value, and these 2 controllers contribute additively to observed drug-seeking. One applied prediction of this model is that smoking cessation pharmacotherapies selectively attenuate tonic but not cue-elicited craving because they downgrade the expected incentive value of the drug but leave expected probability intact. To test this, the current study examined whether nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) nasal spray would modify goal-directed tobacco choice in a human outcome devaluation procedure, but leave cue-elicited tobacco choice in a Pavlovian to instrumental transfer (PIT) procedure intact. Smokers (N= 96) first underwent concurrent choice training in which 2 responses earned tobacco or chocolate points, respectively. Participants then ingested either NRT nasal spray (1 mg) or chocolate (147 g) to devalue 1 outcome. Concurrent choice was then tested again in extinction to measure goal-directed control of choice, and in a PIT test to measure the extent to which tobacco and chocolate stimuli enhanced choice of the same outcome. It was found that NRT modified tobacco choice in the extinction test but not the extent to which the tobacco stimulus enhanced choice of the tobacco outcome in the PIT test. This dissociation suggests that the propensity to engage in drug-seeking is determined independently by the expected value and probability of the drug, and that pharmacotherapy has partial efficacy because it selectively effects expected drug value.
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Hogarth L, Chase HW, Baess K (2012). Impaired goal-directed behavioural control in human impulsivity.
Q J Exp Psychol (Hove),
65(2), 305-316.
Abstract:
Impaired goal-directed behavioural control in human impulsivity.
Two dissociable learning processes underlie instrumental behaviour. Whereas goal-directed behaviour is controlled by knowledge of the consequences, habitual behaviour is elicited directly by antecedent Pavlovian stimuli without knowledge of the consequences. Predominance of habitual control is thought to underlie psychopathological conditions associated with corticostriatal abnormalities, such as impulsivity and drug dependence. To explore this claim, smokers were assessed for nicotine dependence, impulsivity, and capacity for goal-directed control over instrumental performance in an outcome devaluation procedure. Reduced goal-directed control was selectively associated with the Motor Impulsivity factor of Barrett's Impulsivity Scale (BIS), which reflects propensity for action without thought. These data support the claim that human impulsivity is marked by impaired use of causal knowledge to make adaptive decisions. The predominance of habit learning may play a role in psychopathological conditions that are associated with trait impulsivity.
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Jones A, Hogarth L, Christiansen P, Rose AK, Martinovic J, Field M (2012). Reward expectancy promotes generalized increases in attentional bias for rewarding stimuli.
Q J Exp Psychol (Hove),
65(12), 2333-2342.
Abstract:
Reward expectancy promotes generalized increases in attentional bias for rewarding stimuli.
Expectations of drug availability increase the magnitude of attentional biases for drug-related cues. However, it is unknown whether these effects are outcome specific, or whether expectation of a specific reinforcer produces a general enhancement of attentional bias for other types of rewarding cues. In the present study, 31 social drinkers completed an eye-tracking task in which attentional bias for alcohol- and chocolate-related cues was assessed while the expectation of receiving alcohol and chocolate was manipulated on a trial-by-trial basis. Participants showed attentional bias for alcohol and chocolate cues (relative to neutral cues) overall. Importantly, these attentional biases for reward cues were magnified when participants expected to receive alcohol and chocolate, but effects were not outcome specific: the expectation of receiving either alcohol or chocolate increased attentional bias for both alcohol and chocolate cues. Results suggest that anticipation of reward produces a general rather than an outcome-specific enhancement of attentional bias for reward-related stimuli.
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Rose AK, Hogarth L, Brown K (2012). THE ROLE OF ATTENTION IN MEDIATING GOAL-DIRECTED ALCOHOL SEEKING.
Author URL.
2011
Field M, Hogarth L, Bleasdale D, Wright P, Fernie G, Christiansen P (2011). Alcohol expectancy moderates attentional bias for alcohol cues in light drinkers.
Addiction,
106(6), 1097-1103.
Abstract:
Alcohol expectancy moderates attentional bias for alcohol cues in light drinkers.
AIMS: Theoretical models suggest that attentional bias for alcohol-related cues develops because cues signal the availability of alcohol, and the expectancy elicited by alcohol cues is responsible for the maintenance of attentional bias among regular drinkers. We investigated the moderating role of alcohol expectancy on attentional bias for alcohol-related cues. DESIGN: Within-subjects experimental design. SETTING: Psychology laboratories. PARTICIPANTS: Adult social drinkers (n=58). MEASUREMENTS: on a trial-by-trial basis, participants were informed of the probability (100%, 50%, 0%) that they would receive beer at the end of the trial before their eye movements towards alcohol-related and control cues were measured. FINDINGS: Heavy social drinkers showed an attentional bias for alcohol-related cues regardless of alcohol expectancy. However, in light social drinkers, attentional bias was only seen on 100% probability trials, i.e. when alcohol was expected imminently. CONCLUSIONS: Attentional bias for alcohol-related cues is sensitive to the current expectancy of receiving alcohol in light social drinkers, but it occurs independently of the current level of alcohol expectancy in heavy drinkers.
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Haselgrove M, Hogarth L (2011).
Clinical Applications of Learning Theory., Psychology Press.
Abstract:
Clinical Applications of Learning Theory
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Norman N, Hogarth L, Panlilio L, Shoaib M (2011). ESTABLISHING CONCURRENT CHOICE PROCEDURES WITH INTRAVENOUS NICOTINE AND SUCROSE IN RATS.
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Norman NA, Hogarth L, Panlilio L, Shoaib M (2011). ESTABLISHING CONCURRENT CHOICE PROCEDURES WITH INTRAVENOUS NICOTINE AND SUCROSE IN RATS.
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Esfandiari A, Shoaib M, Hogarth L, Panlilio L (2011). ESTABLISHING PAVLOVIAN TO INSTRUMENTAL TRANSFER (PIT) WITH INTRAVENOUS NICOTINE AND SUCROSE IN RATS.
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Craig M, Pennacchia A, Wright NR, Chase HW, Hogarth L (2011). Evaluation of un-medicated, self-paced alcohol withdrawal.
PLoS One,
6(7).
Abstract:
Evaluation of un-medicated, self-paced alcohol withdrawal.
It is currently unclear how effective un-medicated, self-paced alcohol withdrawal is in reducing alcohol consumption in alcohol dependent clients. To address this question, the current study examined the reduction in alcohol consumption, assessed by breath alcohol and drink diary self-report, of 405 alcohol-dependent clients over a 10-day, un-medicated, self-paced alcohol reduction program that included group discussion of strategies for titrating between withdrawal and intoxication. It was found that attendance at treatment sessions was associated with a reduction in alcohol consumption, reflected in both breath alcohol and diary measures, and these two measures were significantly correlated. Overall, 35% of clients achieved a zero breath alcohol reading by their final session, although this percentage increased to 56% of clients who attended all 10 sessions. Withdrawal seizures occurred in only 0.5% of clients despite 17.2% having a history of seizures in other settings. It is concluded that the alcohol reduction protocol outlined here provides an effective and safe method for reducing alcohol consumption in severely alcohol dependent clients, and that methods for augmenting attendance, such as contingency management, should enhance the effectiveness of this treatment.
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Chase HW, Hogarth L (2011). Impulsivity and symptoms of nicotine dependence in a young adult population.
Nicotine Tob Res,
13(12), 1321-1325.
Abstract:
Impulsivity and symptoms of nicotine dependence in a young adult population.
INTRODUCTION: Impulsivity is widely regarded as a risk factor for drug dependence. However, its relationship with the symptomatology of nicotine dependence is poorly understood. METHODS: to examine the nature of these relationships, we recruited 404 daily and occasional smokers from a predominantly student population and assessed the association between impulsivity, as measured by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11) and several self-reported measures of smoking rate and nicotine dependence, including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual's (DSM-IV) criteria. RESULTS: Overall, impulsivity was high throughout the entire sample but only modestly associated with nicotine dependence. Within the diagnostic criteria of nicotine dependence, two symptoms, which reflect automatized or habitual smoking, were most strongly associated with impulsivity. CONCLUSION: These data support recent human and animal work, which suggests that impulsivity is linked to the formation of habitual drug use, and are discussed within the framework of a dual-system account of drug seeking.
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Hogarth L, Chase HW (2011). Parallel goal-directed and habitual control of human drug-seeking: implications for dependence vulnerability.
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process,
37(3), 261-276.
Abstract:
Parallel goal-directed and habitual control of human drug-seeking: implications for dependence vulnerability.
Dual-process theories of learning and addiction propose that whereas freely elected drug/reward-seeking is goal-directed in being mediated by the expected value of the outcome, cue-elicited drug/reward-seeking is habitual in being elicited directly by antecedent stimuli, without retrieving a representation of outcome value. To substantiate this claim, the current study conducted a human devaluation-transfer procedure in which young adult smokers were first trained on a concurrent choice task to earn tobacco and chocolate points before one outcome was devalued by specific satiety or health warnings against consumption of that outcome. When choice was again tested in extinction, the selective reduction in performance of the action associated with the devalued outcome indicated that choice was controlled by an expectation of outcome value, that is, was goal-directed. Moreover, the presentation of tobacco and chocolate cues enhanced selection of the response associated with that outcome, indicating that transfer was also mediated by the retrieval of the outcome representation. Paradoxically, however, the magnitude of this transfer effect was unaffected by devaluation, indicating that the stimulus retrieved a representation of outcome identity but not current incentive value. Individual differences in tobacco dependence in the young adult sample were associated with tobacco preference in the concurrent choice task but not with the devaluation or transfer effects. These data accord with dual-process theories in suggesting that drug/reward-seeking are mediated by goal-directed and habitual controllers under freely elected and cued conditions, respectively, and that initial uptake of drug use is associated with hyper-valuation of the drug as an outcome of goal-directed drug-seeking rather than with accelerated habit formation.
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Trick L, Hogarth L, Duka T (2011). Prediction and uncertainty in human Pavlovian to instrumental transfer.
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn,
37(3), 757-765.
Abstract:
Prediction and uncertainty in human Pavlovian to instrumental transfer.
Attentional capture and behavioral control by conditioned stimuli have been dissociated in animals. The current study assessed this dissociation in humans. Participants were trained on a Pavlovian schedule in which 3 visual stimuli, A, B, and C, predicted the occurrence of an aversive noise with 90%, 50%, or 10% probability, respectively. Participants then went on to separate instrumental training in which a key-press response canceled the aversive noise with a. 5 probability on a variable interval schedule. Finally, in the transfer phase, the 3 Pavlovian stimuli were presented in this instrumental schedule and were no longer differentially predictive of the outcome. Observing times and gaze dwell time indexed attention to these stimuli in both training and transfer. Aware participants acquired veridical outcome expectancies in training--that is, a > B > C, and these expectancies persisted into transfer. Most important, the transfer effect accorded with these expectancies, a > B > C. By contrast, observing times accorded with uncertainty--that is, they showed B > a = C during training, and B < a = C in the transfer phase. Dwell time bias supported this association between attention and uncertainty, although these data showed a slightly more complicated pattern. Overall, the study suggests that transfer is linked to outcome prediction and is dissociated from attention to conditioned stimuli, which is linked to outcome uncertainty.
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Rose AK, Hogarth L (2011). THE ROLE OF CHOICE IN ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE.
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Chase HW, Eickhoff SB, Laird AR, Hogarth L (2011). The neural basis of drug stimulus processing and craving: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis.
Biol Psychiatry,
70(8), 785-793.
Abstract:
The neural basis of drug stimulus processing and craving: an activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis.
BACKGROUND: the capacity of drug cues to elicit drug-seeking behavior is believed to play a fundamental role in drug dependence; yet the neurofunctional basis of human drug cue-reactivity is not fully understood. We performed a meta-analysis to identify brain regions that are consistently activated by presentation of drug cues. Studies involving treatment-seeking and nontreatment-seeking substance users were contrasted to determine whether there were consistent differences in the neural response to drug cues between these populations. Finally, to assess the neural basis of craving, consistency across studies in brain regions that show correlated activation with craving was assessed. METHODS: Appropriate studies, assessing the effect of drug-related cues or manipulations of drug craving in drug-user populations across the whole brain, were obtained via the PubMed database and literature search. Activation likelihood estimation, a method of quantitative meta-analysis that estimates convergence across experiments by modeling the spatial uncertainty of neuroimaging data, was used to identify consistent regions of activation. RESULTS: Cue-related activation was observed in the ventral striatum (across both subgroups), amygdala (in the treatment-seeking subgroup and overall), and orbitofrontal cortex (in the nontreatment-seeking subgroup and overall) but not insula cortex. Although a different pattern of frontal and temporal lobe activation between the subgroups was observed, these differences were not significant. Finally, right amygdala and left middle frontal gyrus activity were positively associated with craving. CONCLUSIONS: These results substantiate the key neural substrates underlying reactivity to drug cues and drug craving.
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Hogarth L (2011). The role of impulsivity in the aetiology of drug dependence: reward sensitivity versus automaticity.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
215(3), 567-580.
Abstract:
The role of impulsivity in the aetiology of drug dependence: reward sensitivity versus automaticity.
RATIONALE: Impulsivity has long been known as a risk factor for drug dependence, but the mechanisms underpinning this association are unclear. Impulsivity may confer hypersensitivity to drug reinforcement which establishes higher rates of instrumental drug-seeking and drug-taking behaviour, or may confer a propensity for automatic (non-intentional) control over drug-seeking/taking and thus intransigence to clinical intervention. METHOD: the current study sought to distinguish these two accounts by measuring Barratt Impulsivity and craving to smoke in 100 smokers prior to their completion of an instrumental concurrent choice task for tobacco (to measure the rate of drug-seeking) and an ad libitum smoking test (to measure the rate of drug-taking-number of puffs consumed). RESULTS: the results showed that impulsivity was not associated with higher rates of drug-seeking/taking, but individual differences in smoking uptake and craving were. Rather, nonplanning impulsivity moderated (decreased) the relationship between craving and drug-taking, but not drug-seeking. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that whereas the uptake of drug use is mediated by hypervaluation of the drug as an instrumental goal, the orthogonal trait nonplanning impulsivity confers a propensity for automatic control over well-practiced drug-taking behaviour.
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2010
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2010). Selective attention to conditioned stimuli in human discrimination learning: Untangling the effect of outcome prediction, valence, arousal and uncertainty. In Mitchell CJ, Pelley MEL (Eds.)
Attention and Associative Learning, Oxford University Press, 71-98.
Abstract:
Selective attention to conditioned stimuli in human discrimination learning: Untangling the effect of outcome prediction, valence, arousal and uncertainty
Abstract.
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2010). The associative basis of cue-elicited drug taking in humans.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
208(3), 337-351.
Abstract:
The associative basis of cue-elicited drug taking in humans.
RATIONALE: Drug cues play an important role in motivating human drug taking, lapse and relapse, but the psychological basis of this effect has not been fully specified. METHOD: to clarify these mechanisms, the study measured the extent to which pictorial and conditioned tobacco cues enhanced smoking topography in an ad libitum smoking session simultaneously with cue effects on subjective craving, pleasure and anxiety. RESULTS: Both cue types increased the number of puffs consumed and craving, but pleasure and anxiety responses were dissociated across cue type. Moreover, cue effects on puff number correlated with effects on craving but not pleasure or anxiety. Finally, whereas overall puff number and craving declined across the two blocks of consumption, consistent with burgeoning satiety, cue enhancement of puff number and craving were both unaffected by satiety. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the data suggest that cue-elicited drug taking in humans is mediated by an expectancy-based associative learning architecture, which paradoxically is autonomous of the current incentive value of the drug.
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2009
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2009). Detection versus sustained attention to drug cues have dissociable roles in mediating drug seeking behavior.
Exp Clin Psychopharmacol,
17(1), 21-30.
Abstract:
Detection versus sustained attention to drug cues have dissociable roles in mediating drug seeking behavior.
It is commonly thought that attentional bias for drug cues plays an important role in motivating human drug-seeking behavior. To assess this claim, two groups of smokers were trained in a discrimination task in which a tobacco-seeking response was rewarded only in the presence of 1 particular stimulus (the S+). The key manipulation was that whereas 1 group could control the duration of S+ presentation, for the second group, this duration was fixed. The results showed that the fixed-duration group acquired a sustained attentional bias to the S+ over training, indexed by greater dwell time and fixation count, which emerged in parallel with the control exerted by the S+ over tobacco-seeking behavior. By contrast, the controllable-duration group acquired no sustained attentional bias for S+ and instead used efficient detection of the S+ to achieve a comparable level of control over tobacco seeking. These data suggest that detection and sustained attention to drug cues have dissociable roles in enabling drug cues to motivate drug-seeking behavior, which has implications for attentional retraining as a treatment for addiction.
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2008
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Austin A, Brown C, Duka T (2008). Attention and expectation in human predictive learning: the role of uncertainty.
Q J Exp Psychol (Hove),
61(11), 1658-1668.
Abstract:
Attention and expectation in human predictive learning: the role of uncertainty.
Three localized, visual pattern stimuli were trained as predictive signals of auditory outcomes. One signal partially predicted an aversive noise in Experiment 1 and a neutral tone in Experiment 2, whereas the other signals consistently predicted either the occurrence or absence of the noise. The expectation of the noise was measured during each signal presentation, and only participants for whom this expectation demonstrated contingency knowledge showed differential attention to the signals. Importantly, when attention was measured by visual fixations, the contingency-aware group attended more to the partially predictive signal than to the consistent predictors in both experiments. This profile of visual attention supports the Pearce and Hall (1980) theory of the role of attention in associative learning.
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Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Janowski M, Nikitina A, Duka T (2008). The role of attentional bias in mediating human drug-seeking behaviour.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
201(1), 29-41.
Abstract:
The role of attentional bias in mediating human drug-seeking behaviour.
RATIONALE: the attentional bias for drug cues is believed to be a causal cognitive process mediating human drug seeking and relapse. OBJECTIVES, METHODS AND RESULTS: to test this claim, we trained smokers on a tobacco conditioning procedure in which the conditioned stimulus (or S+) acquired parallel control of an attentional bias (measured with an eye tracker), tobacco expectancy and instrumental tobacco-seeking behaviour. Although this correlation between measures may be regarded as consistent with the claim that the attentional bias for the S+ mediated tobacco seeking, when a secondary task was added in the test phase, the attentional bias for the S+ was abolished, yet the control of tobacco expectancy and tobacco seeking remained intact. CONCLUSIONS: This dissociation suggests that the attentional bias for drug cues is not necessary for the control that drug cues exert over drug-seeking behaviour. The question raised by these data is what function does the attentional bias serve if it does not mediate drug seeking?
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2007
Duka T, Townshend J, Hogarth L, Stephens D (2007). Impaired learning of conditioned fear in alcoholics with a history of multiple detoxifications and in binge drinkers.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Wright A, Kouvaraki M, Duka T (2007). The role of drug expectancy in the control of human drug seeking.
Author URL.
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Wright A, Kouvaraki M, Duka T (2007). The role of drug expectancy in the control of human drug seeking.
J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process,
33(4), 484-496.
Abstract:
The role of drug expectancy in the control of human drug seeking.
Human drug seeking may be goal directed in the sense that it is mediated by a mental representation of the drug or habitual in the sense that it is elicited by drug-paired cues directly. To test these 2 accounts, the authors assessed whether a drug-paired stimulus (S+) would transfer control to an independently trained drug-seeking response. Smokers were trained on an instrumental discrimination that established a tobacco S+ in Experiment 1 and a tobacco and a money S+ in Experiment 2 that elicited an expectancy of their respective outcomes. Participants then learned 2 new instrumental responses, 1 for each outcome, in the absence of these stimuli. Finally, in the transfer test, each S+ was found to augment performance of the new instrumental response that was trained with the same outcome. This outcome-specific transfer effect indicates that drug-paired stimuli controlled human drug seeking via a representation or expectation of the drug rather than through a direct stimulus-response association.
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2006
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Hutton SB, Bamborough H, Duka T (2006). Contingency knowledge is necessary for learned motivated behaviour in humans: relevance for addictive behaviour.
Addiction,
101(8), 1153-1166.
Abstract:
Contingency knowledge is necessary for learned motivated behaviour in humans: relevance for addictive behaviour.
AIMS: Many forms of human conditioned behaviour depend upon explicit knowledge of the predictive contingency between stimuli, responses and the reinforcer. However, it remains uncertain whether the conditioning of three key behaviours in drug addiction-selective attention, instrumental drug-seeking behaviour and emotional state--are dependent upon contingency knowledge. To test this possibility, we employed an avoidance procedure to generate rapidly these three forms of conditioned behaviour without incurring the methodological problems of drug conditioning. DESIGN: in two experiments, participants (16 students) were trained on a schedule in which one stimulus (S +) predicted the occurrence of a startling noise, which could be cancelled by performing an instrumental avoidance response. MEASUREMENTS: the allocation of attention to the S + and the rate and probability of the avoidance response in the presence of S + were measured. Following training, participants were tested for their knowledge of the stimulus-noise contingencies arranged in the study and rated the emotional qualities of the stimuli. FINDINGS: Both experiments showed that S + gained control of selective attention, instrumental avoidance behaviour and subjective anxiety, but only in participants who reported explicit knowledge of the Pavlovian contingency between the S + and the startling noise. CONCLUSIONS: the implication of the present findings is that the control of selective attention, instrumental drug-seeking behaviour and emotional state by drug-paired stimuli is mediated by cognitive knowledge of the predictive contingency between the stimulus and the drug.
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Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Hutton SB, Elbers N, Duka T (2006). Drug expectancy is necessary for stimulus control of human attention, instrumental drug-seeking behaviour and subjective pleasure.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
185(4), 495-504.
Abstract:
Drug expectancy is necessary for stimulus control of human attention, instrumental drug-seeking behaviour and subjective pleasure.
BACKGROUND: it has been suggested that drug-paired stimuli (S+) control addictive behaviour by eliciting an explicit mental representation or expectation of drug availability. AIMS: the aim of the present study was to test this hypothesis by determining whether the behavioural control exerted by a tobacco-paired S+ in human smokers would depend upon the S+ eliciting an explicit expectation of tobacco. DESIGN: in each trial, human smokers (n=16) were presented with stimuli for which attention was measured with an eyetracker. Participants then reported their cigarette reward expectancy before performing, or not, an instrumental tobacco-seeking response that was rewarded with cigarette gains if the S+ had been presented or punished with cigarette losses if the S- had been presented. Following training, participants rated the pleasantness of stimuli. RESULTS: the S+ only brought about conditioned behaviour in an aware group (those who expected the cigarette reward outcome when presented with the S+). This aware group allocated attention to the S+, performed the instrumental tobacco-seeking response selectively in the presence of the S+ and rated the S+ as pleasant. No conditioned behaviour was seen in the unaware group (those who did not expect the cigarette reward outcome in the presence of the S+). CONCLUSIONS: Drug-paired stimuli control selective attention, instrumental drug-seeking behaviour and positive emotional state by eliciting an explicit expectation of drug availability.
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Hogarth L, Duka T (2006). Human nicotine conditioning requires explicit contingency knowledge: is addictive behaviour cognitively mediated?.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
184(3-4), 553-566.
Abstract:
Human nicotine conditioning requires explicit contingency knowledge: is addictive behaviour cognitively mediated?
RATIONALE: Two seemingly contrary theories describe the learning mechanisms that mediate human addictive behaviour. According to the classical incentive theories of addiction, addictive behaviour is motivated by a Pavlovian conditioned appetitive emotional response elicited by drug-paired stimuli. Expectancy theory, on the other hand, argues that addictive behaviour is mediated by an expectancy of the drug imparted by cognitive knowledge of the Pavlovian (predictive) contingency between stimuli (S+) and the drug and of the instrumental (causal) contingency between instrumental behaviour and the drug. AIMS AND METHOD: the present paper reviewed human-nicotine-conditioning studies to assess the role of appetitive emotional conditioning and explicit contingency knowledge in mediating addictive behaviour. RESULTS: the studies reviewed here provided evidence for both the emotional conditioning and the expectancy accounts. The first source of evidence is that nicotine-paired S+ elicit an appetitive emotional conditioned response (CR), albeit only in participants who expect nicotine. Furthermore, the magnitude of this emotional state is modulated by nicotine deprivation/satiation. However, the causal status of the emotional response in driving other forms of conditioned behaviour remains undemonstrated. The second source of evidence is that other nicotine CRs, including physiological responses, self-administration, attentional bias and subjective craving, are also dependent on participants possessing explicit knowledge of the Pavlovian contingencies arranged in the experiment. In addition, several of the nicotine CRs can be brought about or modified by instructed contingency knowledge, demonstrating the causal status of this knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these data suggest that human nicotine conditioned effects are mediated by an explicit expectancy of the drug coupled with an appetitive emotional response that reflects the positive biological value of the drug. The implication of this conclusion is that treatments designed to modify the expected value of the drug may prove effective.
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2005
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2005). Explicit knowledge of stimulus-outcome contingencies and stimulus control of selective attention and instrumental action in human smoking behaviour.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
177(4), 428-437.
Abstract:
Explicit knowledge of stimulus-outcome contingencies and stimulus control of selective attention and instrumental action in human smoking behaviour.
RATIONALE: External stimuli (S+) that reliably signal that addictive drugs are available command the focus of selective attention and control instrumental action that procures the drug. According to incentive salience theory, as the contingency between the S+ and the drug is learned the magnitude of attentional orienting towards the S+ increases. By contrast, alternative theories propose that processing of the S+ becomes more efficient with training such that the measured attentional orienting response elicited by the S+ decreases. OBJECTIVES: the aim of the present study was to prompt half of participants to acquire explicit knowledge of the stimulus-reinforcer contingencies arranged in training, to examine the impact of this manipulation on the magnitude of attentional orienting towards the S+. METHODS: Smokers (n=32) completed an instrumental discrimination training procedure in which a set of stimuli were established as differential predictors that an instrumental response would yield tobacco-smoke reinforcement. During training, attention for the stimuli and performance of the instrumental tobacco-seeking response were measured in parallel. One group (n=16) was prompted to develop explicit knowledge of the discriminative contingencies in training whereas another group (n=16) underwent discrimination training without prompting. RESULTS: the prompted group reported accurate knowledge of the contingencies and showed no attentional orienting response towards the S+. By contrast, the unprompted group reported inaccurate knowledge of the contingencies and showed an attentional orienting response towards the S+. The S+ appeared to control the instrumental tobacco-seeking response in both groups equally. CONCLUSIONS: the results suggest that attention for drug paired S+ is associated with the process of learning about the relationship between those cues and the drug.
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Stephens DN, Ripley TL, Borlikova G, Schubert M, Albrecht D, Hogarth L, Duka T (2005). Repeated ethanol exposure and withdrawal impairs human fear conditioning and depresses long-term potentiation in rat amygdala and hippocampus.
Biol Psychiatry,
58(5), 392-400.
Abstract:
Repeated ethanol exposure and withdrawal impairs human fear conditioning and depresses long-term potentiation in rat amygdala and hippocampus.
BACKGROUND: in rats, repeated episodes of alcohol consumption and withdrawal (RWD) impair fear conditioning to discrete cues. METHODS: Fear conditioning was measured in human binge drinkers as the increased startle response in the presence of a CS+ conditioned to aversive white noise. Secondly, the ability of tone CSs, paired with footshock, to induce c-fos expression, a marker of neuronal activity, in limbic structures subserving emotion was studied in rats. Additionally, consequences of RWD on subsequent induction of long term potentiation (LTP) in external capsule/lateral amygdala and Schaffer collateral/hippocampus CA1 pathways were studied in rat brain slices. RESULTS: Fear conditioning was impaired in young human binge drinkers. The ability of fear-conditioned CSs to increase c-fos expression in limbic brain areas was reduced following RWD, as was LTP induction. Rats conditioned prior to RWD, following RWD showed generalization of conditioned fear from the tone CS+ to a neutral control stimulus, and a novel tone. CONCLUSIONS: Binge-like drinking impairs fear conditioning, reduces LTP, and results in inappropriate generalization of learned fear responses. We propose a mechanism whereby RWD-induced synaptic plasticity reduces capacity for future learning, while allowing unconditioned stimuli access to neuronal pathways underlying conditioned fear.
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Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Hutton SB, Bamborough H, Duka T (2005). Stimulus control of human selective attention and instrumental avoidance behaviour depends upon explicit contingency knowledge.
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Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Hutton SB, Duka T (2005). The control of human selective attention by cues associated with nicotine.
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2003
Hogarth LC, Mogg K, Bradley BP, Duka T, Dickinson A (2003). Attentional orienting towards smoking-related stimuli.
Behavioural Pharmacology,
14(2), 153-160.
Abstract:
Attentional orienting towards smoking-related stimuli
According to incentive salience theory, conditioned stimuli (CS+) associated with drug reinforcement acquire the capacity to elicit a conditioned attentional orienting response, which controls drug-seeking and drug-taking behaviour. We sought evidence for this proposal by measuring visual attentional orienting towards smoking pictures presented briefly in the periphery of the visual field, versus control pictures likewise presented, in smokers versus non-smokers. In each trial, smokers and non-smokers responded manually to a dot probe stimulus that appeared in a location previously occupied by either a smoking picture or a control picture. Attentional bias scores were calculated by subtracting the median reaction time (RT) in the former condition from the median RT in the latter condition. In two experiments, light-smokers (smokers of fewer than 20 cigarettes/day) produced a mean bias score that was significantly greater than that of heavy-smokers (smokers of 20 or more cigarettes/day) and non-smokers. In addition, when smokers from the two experiments were pooled, a significant quadratic relationship was found between cigarettes/day and the attentional bias for the smoking stimuli. These findings are consistent with incentive salience theories and dual-process theories of addiction. © 2003 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Abstract.
Hogarth LC, Mogg K, Bradley BP, Duka T, Dickinson A (2003). Attentional orienting towards smoking-related stimuli. Behavioural Pharmacology, 14, 153-160.
Hogarth L, Dickinson A, Duka T (2003). Discriminative stimuli that control instrumental tobacco-seeking by human smokers also command selective attention.
Psychopharmacology (Berl),
168(4), 435-445.
Abstract:
Discriminative stimuli that control instrumental tobacco-seeking by human smokers also command selective attention.
RATIONALE: Incentive salience theory states that acquired bias in selective attention for stimuli associated with tobacco-smoke reinforcement controls the selective performance of tobacco-seeking and tobacco-taking behaviour. OBJECTIVES: to support this theory, we assessed whether a stimulus that had acquired control of a tobacco-seeking response in a discrimination procedure would command the focus of visual attention in a subsequent test phase. METHODS: Smokers received discrimination training in which an instrumental key-press response was followed by tobacco-smoke reinforcement when one visual discriminative stimulus (S+) was present, but not when another stimulus (S-) was present. The skin conductance response to the S+ and S- assessed whether Pavlovian conditioning to the S+ had taken place. In a subsequent test phase, the S+ and S- were presented in the dot-probe task and the allocation of the focus of visual attention to these stimuli was measured. RESULTS: Participants learned to perform the instrumental tobacco-seeking response selectively in the presence of the S+ relative to the S-, and showed a greater skin conductance response to the S+ than the S-. In the subsequent test phase, participants allocated the focus of visual attention to the S+ in preference to the S-. Correlation analysis revealed that the visual attentional bias for the S+ was positively associated with the number of times the S+ had been paired with tobacco-smoke in training, the skin conductance response to the S+ and with subjective craving to smoke. Furthermore, increased exposure to tobacco-smoke in the natural environment was associated with reduced discrimination learning. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that discriminative stimuli that signal that tobacco-smoke reinforcement is available acquire the capacity to command selective attentional and elicit instrumental tobacco-seeking behaviour.
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