Children in the western world often are socialized as meat-eaters, while caring much about animals. Yet we know little about how children think about eating animals and animal products, which will have important consequences for global meat consumption. Participants (n = 479, 80% White British, 57% female; children n = 119, Mage = 10.03, SD = 0.72; young adults n = 181, Mage = 19.09, SD = 0.85; adults n = 179, Mage = 40.97, SD = 8.18) reasoned about the acceptability of eating animals and animal products. Using the framework of social domain theory, we found that that children focused on moral concerns (p <. 001, ηp2 =. 01), whereas adults referenced conventions about the natural and necessary components of eating meat. Participants across age groups reported eating animal products (e.g. milk) to be acceptable because animals were not harmed. Together these results indicate that attempts to reduce meat consumption ought to be tailored in a domain-specific manner to age groups.

Children in the western world often are socialized as meat-eaters, while caring much about animals. Yet we know little about how children think about eating animals and animal products, which will have important consequences for global meat consumption. Participants (n = 479, 80% White British, 57% female; children n = 119, Mage = 10.03, SD = 0.72; young adults n = 181, Mage = 19.09, SD = 0.85; adults n = 179, Mage = 40.97, SD = 8.18) reasoned about the acceptability of eating animals and animal products. Using the framework of social domain theory, we found that that children focused on moral concerns (p &amp;lt;. 001, ηp2 =. 01), whereas adults referenced conventions about the natural and necessary components of eating meat. Participants across age groups reported eating animal products (e.g. milk) to be acceptable because animals were not harmed. Together these results indicate that attempts to reduce meat consumption ought to be tailored in a domain-specific manner to age groups.

Humans care for the wellbeing of some animals (e.g. dogs), yet tacitly endorse the maltreatment of others (e.g. pigs). What treatment is deemed morally appropriate for an animal can depend on whether the animal is characterised as “food”. When such categorisation of animals emerges, and when a moral hierarchy of beings depending on their species-membership (speciesism) develops is poorly understood. We investigate this development across samples of children (9-11-years-old), young adults (18-21-years-old), and adults (29-59-years-old; total N=479). Compared to young adults and adults, children a) show less speciesism, b) are less likely to categorize farm animals as food than pets, c) think farm animals ought to be treated better, and d) deem eating meat and animal products to be less morally acceptable. These findings imply that there are key age-related differences in our moral view of animal worth that point to socially constructed development over the lifespan.

Children (n =121, M = 9.86 years, SD=.64) and adolescents (n = 101, M = 12.84 years, SD=.69) evaluated proactive and passive bystander behavior to intergroup name-calling (N = 222, 54% female). Scenarios depicted ingroup perpetrators and outgroup victims who were from a stigmatized group (ethnicity) or a non-stigmatized group (school affiliation), with bystanders depicted as being proactive (intervening to help) or passive (failing to challenge the aggression), counter to their own group’s norm. Children and adolescents personally evaluated proactive bystanders more favorably than passive bystanders. However, adolescents, more than children, expected their peers to be more positive about proactive bystanders than passive bystanders in the stigmatized context. Results are discussed in terms of the complexities of bystander decisions and implications for anti-bullying interventions.

The present study examined age-related differences in bystander reactions within the context of peer exclusion of national ingroup (British) and immigrant outgroup (Australian or Turkish) peers. The immigrant peers were from nations that varied in terms of their perceived intergroup status in Britain. Participants were British children (n = 110, 8–11 years) and adolescents (n = 193, 13–16 years) who were presented with one of three scenarios in which a British national, Australian immigrant, or Turkish immigrant peer was excluded by a British peer group. Participants indicated their bystander responses. Perceived similarity and bystander self-efficacy were examined as possible correlates of bystander reactions. Findings revealed that children were more likely to directly challenge the social exclusion when the excluded peer was British or Australian compared with when they were Turkish. In contrast, adolescents did not differentiate in their response—they were equally likely to directly challenge the exclusion regardless of the excluded peer’s nationality. Importantly, when the excluded peer was Turkish, moderated mediation analysis showed that, with age, there was higher bystander self-efficacy for challenging the exclusions. In turn, higher bystander self-efficacy was related to higher direct challenging. These novel findings demonstrate the importance of intergroup relations, perceived similarity, and bystander self-efficacy in the emergence of age-related differences in bystander reactions to the exclusion of immigrant peers.

The present study examined British children's and adolescents' individual and perceived group evaluations of a challenger when a member of one's own group excludes a British national or an immigrant newcomer to the school (Turkish or Australian) from participating in a group activity. Participants included British children (n = 110, Mage in years  = 9.69, SD = 1.07, 44 girls, aged 8-11) and adolescents (n = 193, Mage in years  = 14.16, SD = 0.92, 104 girls, aged 13-16), who were inducted into their group and heard hypothetical scenarios in which a member of their own group expressed a desire to exclude the newcomer from joining their activity. Subsequently, participants heard that another member of the ingroup challenged the exclusionary act by stating that they should be inclusive. Children's and adolescents' individual evaluations of the bystander who challenged the social exclusion of an immigrant peer were more positive than their perceived group evaluations, recognizing that groups are often exclusionary. Only adolescents but not children differed in their individual and perceived group evaluations in the social exclusion of British peers. When the newcomer was an immigrant peer, adolescents were more likely to evaluate the challenger positively in both their individual and perceived group evaluations compared to children. Further, children, compared to adolescents, were more likely to reason about social and group norms to justify their evaluations only when the excluded peer was an immigrant but not when the excluded peer was British. Adolescents were more likely to reason about fairness, rights, and equality. The findings indicate that exclusionary group norms surrounding immigrants begin in childhood. Interventions that focus on changing group norms to be more inclusive could be effective in reducing prejudicial attitudes toward immigrants in childhood.

Immigrant children and adolescents experience intergroup exclusion, which has many adverse psychological and academic outcomes. Bystander challenging reactions are effective in reducing social exclusion in schools. The likelihood of bystander challenging, however, can decrease developmentally. Previous research indicates that group membership, group status, and group norms can affect how youth evaluate, reason about, and react to intergroup bullying. The present thesis extends the existing knowledge by examining how group membership, group status and group norms developmentally influence children’s (aged 8-11 years) and adolescents’ (aged 13-15 years) evaluations of, reasoning about, and bystander reactions to the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants, for the first time, in intergroup compared to intragroup exclusion contexts, drawing from a developmental intergroup approach.
Chapter One reviews the literature regarding intergroup exclusion and bystander reactions and outlines the Social Reasoning Developmental model (SRD) upon which this thesis draws. Chapter Two provides a behavioural examination of the role of group membership and group status in how children (8- to 10-year-olds) and adolescents (13- to 15-year-olds, N = 292) react to the intergroup and intragroup exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants using an online ball-throwing game, Cyberball. In Chapters Three, Four and Five, participants were aged 8 to 10 and 13 to 15 years (N = 340). Chapter Three examines how children’s and adolescents’ evaluation of exclusion and group support change developmentally in intergroup and intragroup peer group contexts. Chapter Four examines the developmental differences in children’s and adolescents’ expectations of peer challenging reactions, and their individual bystander challenging reactions to exclusion in intergroup and intragroup peer group contexts. Chapter Five examines the developmental differences in children’s and adolescents’ indirect bystander challenging reactions to and reasoning about the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants. In Chapters Six and Seven, participants were aged 8 to 11 and 13 to 15 years (N = 463). Chapter Six examines how injunctive peer group norms (i.e. what peers approve of) and descriptive peer group norms (i.e. what peers actually do) influence children’s and adolescents’ bystander reactions to the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants. Chapter Seven examines how injunctive and descriptive peer group norms influence children’s and adolescents’ evaluations of social exclusion and their group’s bystander reactions. Overall, these studies show how group membership, group status, and group norms can play an important role in shaping youth’s decreasing bystander reactions to social exclusion with age. In Chapter Eight, the findings of the current work are discussed in relation to the SRD, and the theoretical, methodological and practical implications are provided.

Immigrant children and adolescents experience intergroup exclusion, which has many adverse psychological and academic outcomes. Bystander challenging reactions are effective in reducing social exclusion in schools. The likelihood of bystander challenging, however, can decrease developmentally. Previous research indicates that group membership, group status, and group norms can affect how youth evaluate, reason about, and react to intergroup bullying. The present thesis extends the existing knowledge by examining how group membership, group status and group norms developmentally influence children’s (aged 8-11 years) and adolescents’ (aged 13-15 years) evaluations of, reasoning about, and bystander reactions to the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants, for the first time, in intergroup compared to intragroup exclusion contexts, drawing from a developmental intergroup approach.
Chapter One reviews the literature regarding intergroup exclusion and bystander reactions and outlines the Social Reasoning Developmental model (SRD) upon which this thesis draws. Chapter Two provides a behavioural examination of the role of group membership and group status in how children (8- to 10-year-olds) and adolescents (13- to 15-year-olds, N = 292) react to the intergroup and intragroup exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants using an online ball-throwing game, Cyberball. In Chapters Three, Four and Five, participants were aged 8 to 10 and 13 to 15 years (N = 340). Chapter Three examines how children’s and adolescents’ evaluation of exclusion and group support change developmentally in intergroup and intragroup peer group contexts. Chapter Four examines the developmental differences in children’s and adolescents’ expectations of peer challenging reactions, and their individual bystander challenging reactions to exclusion in intergroup and intragroup peer group contexts. Chapter Five examines the developmental differences in children’s and adolescents’ indirect bystander challenging reactions to and reasoning about the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants. In Chapters Six and Seven, participants were aged 8 to 11 and 13 to 15 years (N = 463). Chapter Six examines how injunctive peer group norms (i.e. what peers approve of) and descriptive peer group norms (i.e. what peers actually do) influence children’s and adolescents’ bystander reactions to the social exclusion of immigrants and non-immigrants. Chapter Seven examines how injunctive and descriptive peer group norms influence children’s and adolescents’ evaluations of social exclusion and their group’s bystander reactions. Overall, these studies show how group membership, group status, and group norms can play an important role in shaping youth’s decreasing bystander reactions to social exclusion with age. In Chapter Eight, the findings of the current work are discussed in relation to the SRD, and the theoretical, methodological and practical implications are provided.

We examined developmental changes in British children’s (8- to 10-year-olds) and adolescents’ (13- to 15-year-olds, N = 340; Female N = 171, 50.3%) indirect bystander reactions (i.e. judgments about whether to get help and from whom when witnessing social exclusion) and their social-moral reasoning regarding their reactions to social exclusion. We also explored, for the first time, how the group membership of the excluder and victim affect participants’ reactions. Participants read a hypothetical scenario in which they witnessed a peer being excluded from a school club by another peer. We manipulated the group membership of the victim (either British or an immigrant) and the group membership of the excluder (either British or an immigrant). Participants’ likelihood of indirect bystander reactions decreased from childhood into adolescence. Children were more likely to get help from a teacher or an adult than getting help from a friend, whereas adolescents were more likely to get help from a friend than getting help from a teacher or an adult. For both indirect bystander reactions, children justified their likelihood of responding by referring to their trust in their teachers and friends. Adolescents were more likely to refer to group loyalty and dynamics, and psychological reasons. The findings support and extend the Social Reasoning Developmental (SRD) approach by showing the importance of group processes with age in shaping children’s judgments about how to respond indirectly by asking for help from others, when they are bystanders in a situation that involves exclusion. The findings have practical implications for combating social exclusion and promoting prosocial bystander behavior in schools.

Background: the self-esteem and school experiences of mixed-race adolescents in the United Kingdom is overlooked in research, despite studies showing mixed-race adolescents may have poorer mental health outcomes than their monoracial peers (e.g. Wong et al. 2012).
Aims: This study explored if and how the school experiences and self-esteem of mixed-race girls differed from monoracial peers, and potential mechanisms accounting for differences in self-esteem.
Sample: Quantitative questionnaires (Phase 1) sampled 109 girls (Mage=13.9 years). Interviews (Phase 2) sampled 12 mixed-race girls (Mage=14.3 years).
Methods: This study used a mixed-methods design. Phase 1 examined self-esteem scores, prevalence of peer-based discrimination, and related support factors (ethnic identity exploration and affirmation, peer support and friendship diversity). Phase 2 involved semi-structured interviews.
Results: Mixed-race girls reported lower self-esteem than monoracial peers from Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) backgrounds. Friendship support predicted mixed-race girls’ self-esteem. Interview data showed that microaggressions (i.e. everyday comments communicating hostile racial messages), family racial socialisation practices (i.e. how youth learn about their own ethnicity and navigating racism) and school diversity were important in understanding the self-esteem of mixed-race girls.
Conclusions: This study provides insight into adolescent mixed-race girls’ school experiences and self-esteem, with implications for practitioners and families. We discuss areas for further research.

AbstractThe period following UK's European Union referendum in 2016 foreshadows significant social and political change in the UK. The current research draws on social psychological theories to empirically examine the drivers of voting decisions during the referendum. We report the results of a prospective study using structural equation modelling with data (N = 244) collected just before, and self‐reported voting behaviour immediately following (N = 197), the European Union referendum. We employ a person and social approach to examine the additive roles of worldview, conservatism, social identity, and intergroup threat as predictors of voting intentions and behaviour. Results showed that person factors (worldview and conservatism) predicted voting intentions through social factors (European identity and realistic threat) and that intentions predicted behaviour. The results highlight the importance of addressing threat‐based intergroup rhetoric and the potential of common in‐group identity to mitigate psychological threat.

AbstractResearch on bystanders' responses to bullying shows the valuable contribution that prosocial or defender behaviors can have in reducing bullying in schools. In this article, we propose that a developmental intergroup approach (i.e. a developing understanding of social identities and related intergroup processes) is required to understand fully when and why children and adolescents help bullied peers in diverse contexts. First, we review theory and evidence on intergroup social exclusion to demonstrate the strength of a developmental intergroup approach when understanding responses to complex social scenarios in childhood and adolescence. Then, we review recent evidence that demonstrates the importance of examining group membership, group identity, and group norms to understand children's and adolescents' responses as bystanders in the context of bias‐based bullying. Finally, we consider implications for school‐based interventions and next steps for research.

AbstractTwelve to 15‐year‐olds (N = 1,100) from majority and minority ethnic backgrounds, living in an ethnically diverse area in the UK, read a hypothetical scenario about verbal racism in school and indicated their bystander responses (prosocial, aggressive, and passive). Findings showed that age, ethnicity, cross‐group friendships, and ethnic socialisation predicted their bystander responses.

AbstractGroup membership, loyalty, and weight are highly relevant for adolescent peer evaluations at school. This research tested how in‐group/out‐group membership affected judgments of peers who deviated from social norms for weight and loyalty. Two hundred and forty 11–13‐year‐olds (49 percent female; 94 percent Caucasian) judged two in‐group or out‐group peers: one was normative (loyal and average weight) and the other was non‐normative (i.e. ‘deviant’). The deviant target was overweight, disloyal to their own group (school), or both (‘doubly deviant’). Derogation of overweight relative to average weight peers was greater if they were in‐group rather than out‐group members, revealing a strong ‘black sheep effect’ for overweight peers. Disloyal out‐group deviants were judged favorably, but this effect was eliminated if they were doubly deviant, suggesting that their disloyalty was insufficient to overcome the overweight stigma. Consistent with developmental subjective group dynamics theory, effects of group membership and types of deviance on adolescents’ favorability toward peers were mediated by adolescents’ perceptions of how well the deviant members would ‘fit’ with the in‐group school. Implications for theory and strategies to reduce peer exclusion, particularly weight stigmatization, are considered.

Adolescents’ evaluations of discriminatory race‐based humor and their expectations about peer responses to discrimination were investigated in 8th‐ (Mage = 13.80) and 10th‐grade (Mage = 16.11) primarily European‐American participants (N = 256). Older adolescents judged race‐based humor as more acceptable than did younger adolescents and were less likely to expect peer intervention. Participants who rejected discrimination were more likely to reference welfare/rights and prejudice and to anticipate that peers would intervene. Showing awareness of group processes, adolescents who rejected race‐based humor believed that peers who intervened would be more likely to be excluded. They also disapproved of exclusion more than did participants who supported race‐based humor. Results expose the complexity of situations involving subtle discrimination. Implications for bullying interventions are discussed.

A developmental intergroup approach was taken to examine the development of prosocial bystander intentions among children and adolescents. Participants as bystanders (N = 260) aged 8–10 and 13–15 years were presented with scenarios of direct aggression between individuals from different social groups (i.e. intergroup verbal aggression). These situations involved either an ingroup aggressor and an outgroup victim or an outgroup aggressor and an ingroup victim. This study focussed on the role of intergroup factors (group membership, ingroup identification, group norms, and social–moral reasoning) in the development of prosocial bystander intentions. Findings showed that prosocial bystander intentions declined with age. This effect was partially mediated by the ingroup norm to intervene and perceived severity of the verbal aggression. However, a moderated mediation analysis showed that only when the victim was an ingroup member and the aggressor an outgroup member did participants become more likely with age to report prosocial bystander intentions due to increased ingroup identification. Results also showed that younger children focussed on moral concerns and adolescents focussed more on psychological concerns when reasoning about their bystander intention. These novel findings help explain the developmental decline in prosocial bystander intentions from middle childhood into early adolescence when observing direct intergroup aggression.

Abrams, Rutland, Palmer, Ferrell, and Pelletier (2014) showed that better second‐order mental state understanding facilitates 6–7‐year‐olds' ability to link a partially disloyal child's atypicality to inclusive or exclusive reactions by in‐group or outgroup members. This finding is interpreted in terms of predictions from the developmental subjective group dynamics model. We respond to thoughtful commentaries by Rhodes and Chalik, Patterson, and Rakoczy. Children face a significant developmental challenge in becoming able to recognize and interpret social atypicality in intergroup contexts. Researching that ability to contextualize judgements raises new questions about the nature of peer inclusion and exclusion, about children's social cognition, and about the way that social cognitive development and social experience combine. Rather than individual‐focused cognition taking priority over category‐based cognition, we argue the two become more systematically integrated during development. We note that loyalty is but one example of typicality, and we also consider the role of more advanced perspective taking among older children, and the role of multiple classification skill among younger children, as well as potential implications for intervention to reduce peer victimization and prejudice.

Children aged 6–7 years judged a loyal and a partially disloyal member of a school in terms of how typical they are within the school group and their likely acceptance by peers from the same school and a different school. Second‐order mental‐state understanding (SOMSU) predicted whether children thought atypical members would be included differently in the two groups. Counterfactual reasoning ability, multiple classification ability, and working memory ability did not predict children's judgements of group members. Moreover, as predicted by the developmental subjective group dynamics model, only children with higher levels of SOMSU and who discerned differences in the typicality of normative and deviant ingroup members inferred that peers would differently include atypical individuals from the same and different groups.